The findings of this study are presented under the heading Meanings of Masculinity (below), which depicts gender-related beliefs and attitudes among the participants. In this section, the research findings are discussed and supported with representative quotes from the interviews in detail.
Meanings of masculinity
From the data collected several concepts emerged that reflected the meanings of masculinity from the participants’ view points. These included: “Having a good body shape”, “being respected”, “having success with women”, “being a family man” and “having financial independence”. Some of the concepts such as “having a good body shape” and “having success with women” were perceived as being the current requirements of masculinity, whereas “being a family man” and “having economic power” reflected future masculine roles as perceived by the participants.
Having a good body shape - the concept of having a fit and muscular body was a clear indicator of a manly appearance among the participants, which was associated with the notions of strength and power:
“To me a true man has the traits of the real man, must be muscular, his body is muscular so he must be strong. He has to have body shape, like muscle, and he is supposed to do rough sports, so that’s a man to me.” 23-year-old Malay
As the interviews continued, “ambiguity codes” were gradually incorporated into the concepts of masculinity. According to the respondents, having a muscular body is more about obtaining a pleasing atheistic appearance, in line with the body form favoured by fashion models and celebrities as seen in magazines and on television:
“The new masculine men are more feminine men that you can see in people in the media like Justine Bieber [a Canadian teen pop musician, singer and actor] or the Korean boy bands. And, right now, nerds are actually becoming the new masculine man. They are more prone to appear on TV compared to macho men anymore, I like them as a role model.” 24-year-old Malay
“Basically, appearance-wise and all that… A muscular and good shape, like what you can see in fashion magazines.” 29-year-old Indian
They also related a man’s body shape to the meaning of masculinity as a means through which they were able to attract women with the intention of forming heterosexual relationships, as one 24-year-old Malay man stated:
“Masculinity means how to show your macho-ness…peacock style… a man presents himself by his body, his masculinity must be presented to attract women… a fit body shape attracts more.”
Overall, the research clearly shows that young men’s perception of an ideal body image is changing from the traditional muscular man to a more aesthetic body, as heavily influenced by the media and the resulting life styles that become popular among young modern men.
Being (becoming) a family man - another theme emerged from the data which implied that some ideas of masculinity are tied to concepts such as familial responsibilities and leadership.
“See in our lives, it all ends with a household. Meaning we will have a wife and kids. So the responsibility can be said to be 100%.
But all that must be presented… Mental strength and how to manage your family, settling problems…so, he has to be intelligent. To me, all of this encapsulates.” 26-year-old Malay
Attributes such as being a provider for the family (the bread winner), a hard worker, good leader (decisive), a problem solver, being knowledgeable and being a good father all correspond to this category. Although none of the participants were married, they clearly portrayed the future position of being a family man as one of their understandings of masculinity. They were often influenced by their religion and opinions gained from their parents’ roles, especially the father’s role. Muslim and Christian men more frequently referred to religious thoughts in their responses:
“Normally in Christian Chinese families, man is the leader. So, when it comes to a man, if you are right, you make a decision. You are not dependent to anyone. You can stand on your own. You earn money and provide for family. I suppose a woman could have earned money for family too but, I assume that the breadwinner is more a masculine role.” 23-year-old Chinese
‘Becoming a good father’ was a concept that seemed to be most heavily influenced by those with religious thoughts. As a Muslim man stated:
“I think being a good father is very important, as Islam has encouraged us, we are responsible to raise righteous children. No matter how much you have earned in your life, if you are terrible in becoming a father, I think you basically fail… fail in terms of family.” 26-year-old Malay
Having success with women - this theme was associated with the meanings of masculinity in the context of a heterosexual relationship. ‘Gentleman’ was the term most frequently used to portray a man with social grace, who as a result enjoys successful relationships with women.
“You should balance both the macho man and the gentler side of the modern man. You should be polite and socialized. This is the social image of man that people accept these days.” 26-year-Old Chinese
Having a “gentle character” and being able to maintain a “caring and communicative relationship” with women was also emphasized by the respondents.
“Most girls don’t really think macho men are that cool anymore. They prefer the more slender, feminine men who are gentle and could listen to them and take care of them.” 22-year-old Chinese
As a group of heterosexual men, the potential for relationships with women were central to their understanding of masculine identities. Success with women was considered as being a harmonic and respectful relationship with partners, by which the participants meant something more than a purely sexual arrangement. In this regard, they associated masculinity with a combination of stereotypical norms (such as taking initiative and mastering the romantic relationship) and non-stereotypical norms (such as being communicative, gentle and listening).
Being respected - according to the respondents, a man “must know how to carry himself in the public to earn the respect of the other men”. They linked the concept of “being respected” with “achievements” and “uniqueness” of a man in his life. As a 29-year-old Malay man stated:
“When it comes to the guys, when they talk about their activity, they’ll be like congratulating them and all that… being proud of his level…he must think of a novel idea, he’ll be like wondering, being someone that supposed to be… it brings respect and confidence, meaning you stand up for yourself.”
Participants tended to prioritize this concept over other meanings of masculinities, such as having a good body shape. As a 25-year-old Chinese man emphasized:
“Respect is the most important thing if you ask about the meaning of masculinity to me. Just by having a good shape, but if you do not know how to talk to others, if you do not know how to carry yourself in the public, people don’t respect you.”
Respondents linked the idea of being respected with their social status at the university. Being respected in terms of a university context was defined as having academic achievements, as well as being involved in campus activities and social events, especially when “taking leadership”.
“I study very hard, and I try to take some responsibilities in the campus, for example, I was the president of cultural night ceremony last year and I am going to do it again… doing such things make you popular in the campus, people look at you as a leader, as a boss… they have respect for you, they say ohh look at this man… he is doing a big job.” 22-year-old Malay
Having financial independence - respondents believed that “money matters in today’s life”, that it brings “power” and “confidence” to them. They mentioned that a “financially independent man” is more attractive to women, more capable of supporting his family and seen as being more focused on his life.
“You know, becoming a confident man cannot be happened without having money. Of course, money is very important… to feel proud and independent, to focus on your goals and to enjoy your life… the higher income you have the more girls come around [laughing].” 22-year-old Indian
As university students, they considered their fields of study as being an important factor in helping them to obtain the best paying jobs.
“Engineering is one of the best paying jobs in Malaysia, that’s why I chose it. Here is a private university and I have to spend lots of money to graduate… it is like investment for my future, when I imagine myself as an engineer in a best paying company I feel assured and confident. It guarantees my future.” 23-year-old Chinese
Medical students also mentioned their future career potential in terms of winning one of the better paying jobs, which would help secure their “economic power” and place in a “higher social class”. Universally, the participants believed that financial independence is an important marker of true masculinity.
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