Table 4 Findings on the determinants associated with different forms of malnutrition in Vietnamese children aged 0–18 years old

Hanieh et al. 2015 [44]

Prospective longitudinal

6 months

1,046

Length, weight, and LAZ

Positive association between infant LAZ scores at 6 months and maternal BMI (coefficient 0.04 kg/m², CI = 0.01–0.07), weight gain during pregnancy (0.04/kg, CI = 0.01–0.06) and maternal ferritin concentration (− 41.5 g/twofold increase in ferritin, CI =  − 78 to − 5.0)

Inverse association between maternal 25-(OH)D concentration and infant LAZ scores (coefficient − 0.06 per 20 nmol/L, CI = -0.11 to -0.01)

No association between maternal iodine status & infant LAZ

Low

Vaktskjold et al. 2010 [26]

Prospective cohort

2005–2006 (1 year)

0–1 year

237

Weight, height, LAZ, WHZ, and BMI-Z

Lower LAZ (β = -2.2, CI = -4.0 to -0.5) and WAZ (-0.5, CI = -1.0 to -0.1) were statistically associated with living rurally

Low

Hien and Hoa 2009 [11]

Cross-sectional

0–3 years

383

Weight and height

Positive association between being underweight and rural living region (OR = 2.22), minority ethnicity (OR = 1.74), mother’s occupation-housewife (OR = 7.91), household size ≤ 4 (OR = 3.07), underweight mother (OR = 1.95), number of children in the family ≥ 3 (OR = 3.35), low birth weight < 2500 g (OR = 7.99), exclusive breastfeeding duration < 6 months (OR = 4.41) and initiation of breastfeeding after 1 hour (OR = 2.54)

Medium

Tran 2008 [45]

Cross-sectional

0–3 years

547

Height, weight and questionnaire

Positive association between fathers not taking children to a medical facility for immunisation and being underweight or stunted (OR = 1.75, CI = 1.07–2.87)

Low

Khan et al. 2007 [23]

Repeat cross-sectional

1990–2005 (14 years)

0–5 years

357,396

Weight, height and BMI

Higher prevalence of underweight, stunting and wasting in rural and mountainous areas than urban areas. Larger rates of reduction of underweight, stunting and wasting in urban areas, than rural and mountainous areas

Household size and being a male are all both positively associated with being stunted (β = -0.1543, p = 0.0001)

Low

Nguyen et al. 2014 [28]

Cross-sectional

0–5 years

4,029

Weight and height

Maternal CMD

Maternal CMD was positively associated with underweight children (OR = 1.27, CI = 1.01–1.61). Low birth weight was positively associated with stunting (OR = 3.71, p < 0.001), underweight (OR = 3.96, p < 0.001), and wasting (OR = 3.61, p < 0.001). Poor household wealth was positively associated with underweight (OR = 1.99, p < 0.01)

Low

Huong et al. 2014 [35]

Repeat cross–-sectional—seasons

2–4.9 years

853

Weight, height and BMI

Summertime is positively associated with being underweight (p < 0.05) and stunted (p < 0.05)

Low

Chen 2021 [51]

Young Lives Study

Longitudinal 2002–2006 (4 years)

1–6 years

2,000

Weight, height, WAZ, HAZ and WHZ

Negative association between malnutrition and family size; having one additional child is associated with declines of the first child’s HAZ (0.49 SD) and WAZ (0.57 SD)

Medium

Kim et al. 2022 [30]

Cross-sectional

3–4 years

103

Weight, height, physical activity and sedentary behaviour

Children not meeting screen time guidelines were at a higher risk of being overweight/ obese but was not significant (OR = 0.94, p = 0.904)

Low

Lavin et al. 2017 [49]

Longitudinal cohort study

8 years

0–8.5 years

1,812

Weight, height and HAZ

Positive associations with moderate/severe stunting were found in low birth weight (OR = 0.114, p = 0.001), food shortages (OR = 0.048, p < 0.001), rural location (OR = 0.068, p < 0.001), decreasing wealth (OR = 0.080, p = 0.008) and ethnic minority (OR = 0.077, p < 0.001)

Low

Bennett et al. 2015 [46]

Young Lives Longitudinal Cohort study 2001–06

1–8 years

1,961

Weight, height, questionnaire and risk of maternal CMD

Maternal CMD is positively associated with stunting at age 1 (ARR = 1.24, CI = 1.03–1.62), age 8 (1.22, CI = 1.03–1.45)

Low

Dearden et al. 2017 [48]

Longitudinal

1–8 years

1,905

Height, weight and BMI-Z

Improved access to water at 1 year old was negatively associated with stunting at 1 (RR = 0.27–1.20), 5 (RR = 0.25–1.17) and 8 (RR = 0.25–1.42) years old

Low

Huynh et al. 2011 [63]

Cohort study

2005–2006

4–5 years

526

Weight, height, SSF: SSFT, TSFT and suprailia

Questionnaire: physical activity level

BMI and SSF were negatively associated with neighbourhood safety for boys (β = -0.80, CI = –1.53 to –0.08) and girls (β = -0.59, CI = -1.16 to -0.01)

Boys increasing BMI was positively associated with both parents being overweight (β = 1.18, CI = 0.21–2.16)

Availability of food at home was associated with increased BMI in girls (β = 1.23, CI = 1.91–0.55) but not boys

Medium

Nguyen et al. 2013 [8]

SEANUTS

multi-stage cluster-randomised sampling

0.2–11.9 years

2,872

Weight, height, mid-upper arm circumference, waist and hip circumferences

Blood: Hb, serum ferritin, vitamin A and D

Positive association between undernutrition and rural habitation (p < 0.05)

Positive association between overnutrition and urban habitation (p < 0.05)

Ferritin: significantly higher levels in urban girls than urban boys (p < 0.05) and significantly higher levels in urban children than rural children (p < 0.05) aged 6–11.9 years

Low

Nguyen et al. 2021 [52]

Cross-sectional, follow up

6–7 years

1,579

Weight, height and BMI

Maternal weight, height and BMI

Preconception maternal nutritional status is positively associated with child attained size at age 6–7. Child HAZ was positively associated with maternal height (+ 0.28 SD) and BMI (+ 0.13 SD), and faster linear growth at age 6–25 months (β = 0.39–0.42)

Low

Trinh et al. 2021 [53]

Longitudinal

5 months – 13 years

2,000

Rainfall data (flooding, drought), weight, height, BMI, HAZ and WAZ

Positive association between flooding and being stunted (RR = 0.122, p < 0.01) and underweight (RR = 0.067 p < 0.01). Positive association between droughts and stunting (RR = 0.127, p < 0.01)

Rainfall shocks can impact parental mental health, increasing the probability of child being underweight by 0.976 (p < 0.001)

Medium

Hoang et al. 2019 [67]

Cross-sectional

6–9 years

839

Weight and height

Blood: Hb and mean corpuscular volume

Underweight, stunting and wasting were all positively associated with anaemia (p < 0.004), specifically normocytic anaemia (p < 0.006)

No significant association between anaemia and demographic indicators or socio-economic indicators

Low

Nguyen 2022 [50]

Cross-sectional

0–15 years

158,019

Height, weight, HAZ and WAZ

Preschool attendance is negatively associated with prevalence of underweight (p = 0.079) and stunting (p = 0.079) at 2–15 years

Medium

Krishna et al. 2015 [47]

Longitudinal–

6 months—15 years

2,489

Weight, height and HAZ

Wealth index is positively associated with growth in children

Low

Mai et al. 2003 [33]

Cross-sectional 1999

7–9 years

348 girls

Weight, height, WAZ, HAZ, WHZ and LMAC

Positive association between rural living and being underweight (OR = 4.5, p < 0.001), stunted (OR = 7.9, P < 0.001), wasted (OR = 2.4, p = 0.039) or undernourished (OR = 3.0, p = 0.045)

Low

Van Lierop et al. 2008 [62]

Cross-sectional

6–10 years

2,631

Weight, height and waist circumference

21.4% were stunted, and higher prevalence was found in rural regions (23.8% vs 17.3%, p < 0.001)

Living in urban areas is positively associated with being overweight (4.6% vs 1.6%, p < 0.001)

Low

Le and Dinh 2022 [39]

Cross-sectional, two-stage cluster random sampling

6–11 years

782

Questionnaire, weight, height, and BMI-Z

Significant positive association between male and childhood obesity (OR = 2.48, p < 0.0001)

Positive association between overweight/ obesity and children who live with only their father (OR = 11.96, p = 0.0219), transport to school being inactive (motorbike/car/bus) (OR = 1.58, p = 0.0096) and mother’s occupation being white collar (OR = 1.56, p = 0.004)

Low

Hung et al. 2005 [65]

Longitudinal

1997–2000 (3 years)

0–17 years

2,767

Blood: Hb and ferritin

Malaria and intestinal helminth infection (worms)

Malaria is significantly positively associated with anaemia (OR = 2.408, p = 0.0006)

No significant association between intestinal helminth & anaemia

Medium

Hall et al. 2001 [32]

Cross-sectional

7–11 years

588

Blood: Hb levels

Anaemia is positively associated with boys:

Aged 7–11 years (RR = 1:07, CI = 1.10–1.13)

Aged 12–14 years (1.18, CI = 1.12–1.24)

Aged ≥ 15 years (1.30, CI = 1.16–1.46)

Medium

Mai et al. 2020 [21]

Cross-sectional

2014–2015

6–18 years

10,949

Weight and height

Positive association between overweight status, urban living (p < 0.001), and male (p < 0.001)

Positive association between underweight status and rural living (p < 0.001)

Low

Trang et al. 2012 [56]

Longitudinal study

2004–2009 (5 years)

11–14 years

759

Weight, height, BMI, questionnaire: level of physical activity and socio-economic status

Levels of ‘moderate-to-vigorous physical activity’ are negatively associated with overweight/ obesity (RR = 0.60, CI = 0.53–0.67)

Low

Tang and Dibley 2022 [59]

Longitudinal

10–15 years

482

Weight, height and BMI

SSF: SSFT and TSFT

Male at higher risk for higher BMI than girls (p = 0.006)

Inactive adolescents at higher risk of gaining weight than active adolescents; TSFT (RR = 1.43, CI = 1.22–1.67), SSFT (1.09, CI = 1.00–1.18) and BMI (1.06, CI = 1.02–1.10)

Low

Tang et al. 2020 [57]

Cross-sectional

10–15 years

2,660

Weight, height and BMI

SSF: SSFT and TSFT

Overweight status was positively associated with boys (p < 0.0001)

TSFT & SSSF significantly higher in girls than boys (p < 0.0001)

Low

Nguyen et al. 2022 [58]

Cross-sectional

11–15 years

2,660

Weight, height and consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs)

Negative association between overweight/ obese status and consumption of milk based SSBs. Every kcal more of fresh milk with sugar & condensed milk, can reduce the obesity odds of 0.005 (CI = 0.002–0.008)

Low

Hong et al. 2007 [40]

Repeated cross-sectional

2002–2004

11–16 years

3,687

Weight, height and BMI

Positive association between increase in overweight/ obesity and male: 113% increase (p < 0.001)

Significant difference in the increase in prevalence by gender: obesity and overweight in males increased by 113%, with only a 39% increase in girls

Poorer households showed smaller increase in obesity/overweight at 33%, compared to wealthier households at 77–124%

Low

Tang et al. 2007 [61]

Cross-sectional

11–16 years

1,504

Weight, height and BMI-Z

Being male is positively associated with being underweight (p = 0.001)

Non-significant association between being male and being overweight or obese (p = 0.074)

Positive association between living in wealthy urban districts and being overweight/ obese (p < 0.001)

Low

Trang et al. 2009 [55]

Cross-sectional

11–16 years

2,684

Weight, height, questionnaire: physical activity levels, and family characteristics

Being overweight is positively associated with physical inactivity (OR = 2.5, CI = 1.9–3.2), passive transport to school (OR = 4.2, CI = 3.3–5.2), no recess exercise (OR = 1.3, CI = 1.1–5.6), time spent playing video games (OR = 2.3, CI = 1.7–3.1), or watching television (OR = 1.5, CI = 1.2–1.9)

Low

Van Nhien et al. 2009 [41]

Cross-sectional

11–17 years

245 girls

Weight and height

Blood: serum Hb and selenium

Anaemia is positively associated with selenium deficiency (OR = 5.36, CI = 2.57–11.18), being underweight (2.72, CI = 1.37–5.37) and years of age (1.35, CI = 1.14–1.59) in girls

Low

Tran et al. 2017 [64]

Cross-sectional

12–17 years

1,851

Weight, height and memory tests

No significant association between child maltreatment and overweight or underweight status

Underweight status is negatively correlated with working memory (r = -0.07, p < 0.01) and academic performance (r = -0.08, p < 0.01)

Overweight status is positively associated with male (OR = 1.39, p = 0.00) and negatively associated with rurality OR = 0.66, p = 0.04)

Low