Table 3 Factors associated with the potential-to-high risk for smartphone overdependence by age group

Female sex

0.61 [0.29–1.29]

0.196

0.58 [0.28–1.19]

0.139

Educational level (Ref: University or higher)

 High school education

14.43 [1.49–139.68]

0.021

4.56 [1.08–19.31]

0.040

 Middle school education or lower

1.50 [0.74–3.02]

0.263

2.26 [1.05–4.89]

0.038

Monthly household income (Ref: KRW < 4 million)

 KRW 4–6 million

1.62 [0.70–3.77]

0.263

1.34 [0.60–2.98]

0.472

 KRW ≥ 6 million

0.80 [0.33–1.93]

0.619

1.05 [0.45–2.43]

0.915

Having a job

0.38 [0.16–0.93]

0.033

1.56 [0.71–3.40]

0.268

Area of residence (Ref: Metropolitan area)

 City

1.26 [0.56–2.86]

0.576

0.57 [0.24–1.36]

0.205

 Small town

1.11 [0.46–2.64]

0.821

0.98 [0.44–2.16]

0.952

Smartphone content usage

 Informative content

1.06 [0.98–1.14]

0.147

1.00 [0.94–1.07]

0.946

 Entertainment content

0.99 [0.92–1.08]

0.868

0.92 [0.85–1.00]

0.053

 Adult content/gambling

1.127 [1.00–1.27]

0.058

1.27 [1.11–1.46]

0.001

 Communication content

1.00 [0.90–1.12]

0.932

1.10 [0.99–1.23]

0.064

 E-commerce content

0.81 [0.70–0.94]

0.006

0.98 [0.84–1.13]

0.739

 Life management content

0.98 [0.88–1.09]

0.722

0.93 [0.83–1.03]

0.161

 Work/education content

1.09 [0.98–1.21]

0.134

1.04 [0.93–1.16]

0.476

Digital literacy

1.11 [0.96–1.27]

0.161

1.07 [0.94–1.21]

0.294

Social relations

0.96 [0.77–1.19]

0.689

1.04 [0.81–1.33]

0.771

Life satisfaction

1.00 [0.88–1.13]

0.971

0.93 [0.80–1.07]

0.306