Table 5 Survey-specific adjusted association between anaemia and environmental factors among children 6–59 months in Ethiopia (EDHS-2005, n = 4,259; EDHS-2011, n = 9,259; EDHS-2016, n = 8,399)

Environmental factors

Sanitation facility

 Improved

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Unimproved

1.18 (0.88–1.57)

0.97 (0.71–1.34)

1.08 (0.92–1.28)

1.02 (0.85–1.21)

0.88 (0.73–1.07)

0.89 (0.69–1.14)

 Open defecation

1.26 (0.95–1.66)**

0.93 (0.67–1.28)

1.49 (1.28–1.76)**

1.33 (1.12–1.58)*

1.29 (1.06–1.57)*

1.49 (1.13–1.90)*

Source of drinking water

 Improved

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Unimproved

0.90 (0.75–1.07)

0.87 (0.72–1.05)

1.17 (1.04–1.32)*

1.11 (0.97–1.26)

1.02 (0.89–1.17)

Time to get a water source

 On-premise

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

  ≤ 30 min

1.56 (1.13–2.16)

1.32 (0.91–1.93)

0.99 (0.81–1.23)

0.93 (0.74–1.17)

1.02 (0.83–1.27)

 31–60 min

1.63 (1.14–2.32)

1.44 (0.96–2.17)

1.05 (0.84–1.32)

0.95 (0.74–1.22)

1.10 (0.87–1.39)

  > 60 min

1.81 (1.26–2.61)

1.49 (0.98–2.27)

1.29 (1.02–1.62)*

1.11 (0.85–1.43)

1.01 (0.78–1.29)

Housing status

 Built from finished materials

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Built from natural or unfinished materials

1.59 (0.94–2.69)

1.37 (0.77–2.45)

1.28 (0.97–1.68)

0.96 (0.74–1.25)

Type of cooking fuel

 Clean fuels

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Solid fuels

1.81 (0.61–5.35)

1.29 (0.71–2.36)

1.62 (1.21–2.18)*

1.44 (0.99–2.11)