Table 2 Themes and review findings

Individual factors

 1. Low skill and knowledge

  1.1 Little knowledge of the negative consequences of marriage and pregnancy

Insufficient knowledge about physical, sexual, psychological and social problems, Insufficient information about the consequences of marriage and pregnancy

I didn’t think to that level. Because I thought marriage wasn’t… it was just like a game. I just followed. I knew nothing. Even when I was pregnant, I didn’t know what to eat, how to do family planning. I didn’t know. That’s why I gave birth to my three children in three years. Small birth spacing [laugh]’. (No. 20, married at 17 years old) [63].

  1.2. Little knowledge of individual rights

Inadequate knowledge of girls and women about marriage laws, Inadequate knowledge of sexual rights

Women do not know enough about their basic sexual and reproductive rights [51].

  1.3.Lack of life skills

Inability to negotiate, Improper decision making, problem solving, Critical Thinking

Had never thought about marriage or the guy who I was going to marry. I couldn’t make decision appropriately. It bothered me so much because I was not ready for marriage and had to marry while still being a kid [39].

 2. Internal and external motivations

  2.1.Religious beliefs

Following the traditions of the prophets, pleasing God, obeying parents, respecting parents, and accepting the fate

Marriage is of God, whether a girl marries early and gives birth or not if she is destined to face problem she will definitely do so. There are cases of older women who still have pregnancy and child birth complications, and if God wishes, a girl that marries early can deliver safely without any complications. All these are the wonders of God, so to me teenage marriage is not a serious problem because in another way it helps in maintaining sanity in the society since girls are so corrupt and cannot keep them selves pure these days [50].

  2.2.Fulfillment of needs and desires

Needing freedom, independence, companionship, enjoyment of life, love and infatuation, desire for sex, dream of a romantic life, gaining prestige, showing aristocratic life

No one convinced them [to marry]. They decided that themselves. [A] friend of mine was tempted to be with her lover and they got married without even telling her parents. She eloped with her lover. They decided to get married because of their own desire [56].

  2.3.Dropping out of school

Lack of educational resources, declining educational attainment, lack of schools, male teachers

my brother doesn’t let me go to further city for continuing my education because their people aren’t good and they cause harassment for us [42]

  2.4.Escape from the hardships of life

life's challenges and hardships, the weight of responsibilities, societal norms, and parental strictness

It was a way out for me. My dad very abusive, not only that, I had to come home from school every day and watch my nieces and nephews, cook, and my parents never let me do anything [68]

  2.5.Preferences and value system

Spouse's job, the spouse's superior status, and the spouse's personal status

My dad told me, the boy is a nice person to marry and I shouldn’t reject his proposal [39]

  2.6.Risky health behavior

Alcohol and drug misuse, Unprotected sex

enjoyed myself.... First, I was in jail because my mom was suspicious about my behavior, and I always talked back. So, she wanted to check, and she told the police to take me. They checked my urine and took me to the drug rehabilitation center [64]

 3. Physical characteristics

  3.1. Being beautiful and attractive

Beauty, Being attractive to men

I was being harassed by a young hoodlum because of my attractive appearance. So I was married off at an early age [59].

  3.1.Mental maturity

Understanding emotional maturity in relation to age, decision-making ability

I wanted to marry because l thought if I get married, I will become more responsible. I think I know more than my friends who are still single. I have a sense of primacy. I feel I ammature than them [39].

  3.3.Physical maturity

Start of menstruation, Being large

In this area, [marital readiness] is not decided by age. We see whether she has matured enough to manage her home after marriage. More of the estimation is based on her physical appearance than her age. At that time she can be 11 or 12 years of age. Sometimes one can make an engagement at the age of 8 and marry her when she reaches 12. –Male decision-maker for girl whose early marriage was delayed/cancelled (relationship: father) [69]

Interpersonal factors

 4. Family characteristics and structure

  4.1. Ineffective parenting

Concern, Irresponsibility, Incompatibility Parents, Ignorance Of The Child's Interests, Lack Of Intimate Relationships

My father had elementary education. My mother was totally illiterate. They knew nothing. They thought if I got married sooner I would be happier [44].

  4.2. Vulnerable family

Domestic Violence, Parental Addiction, Divorce, Loss Of A Parent, And Absence Of A Guardian

My father was an addict. My mother used to say that no one would marry the daughter of a drug addict [44].

  4.3. Extended and Traditional family

The Involvement Of Relatives, Extreme Prejudices Of The Family, Dominance Of The Father In The Family (Patriarchy), The High Dimension Of The Family/Several Children, Decision-Making By Parents

It was my father's words, don't ask me if you want to get married or not [48].

Community factors

 5. Environmental and economic factors

  5.1. The economic situation

Poverty, financial burden, weak family financial support, inability to meet basic needs, challenging living conditions, poverty caused by natural climate change, lack of employment opportunities

We were very poor. I had got some education in school. I had seven sisters. After the birth of my three sisters we got a brother. But after a few days he died. My mother got pregnant often, hoping for a son [59].

  5.2.Pressure reference patterns

Approval from peers, encouragement from relatives, media advertising

I think if the girl is approved to get married by her parents and my parents, it means that she is ready to get married. We don’t measure woman’s readiness for marriage by her age, but by her ability to have children and manage her family. I wouldn’t marry a lady of whom my parents and relatives do not approve. I can’t divorce my spouse without their consent regardless of the type or nature of the problem [45].

Society factors

 6. Socio-cultural factors

  6.3. cultural beliefs of society

Avoiding dowry, being compatible with young girls, delaying marriage, maintaining virgin, preserving reputation, exchanging goods, settling blood ties, peace, consolidating friendship and kinship, avoiding sin, maintaining similarity with relatives, social value, prohibition of premarital sex , magic, preserving family property, avoiding social stigma

It is recommended that a girl be married off before the age of 18, preferably between the ages of 15 or 16, in order to avoid shame befalling the family”, said one community elder. When a girl delays marriage, she is considered flawed and is thought to bring bad luck to her family [43].

  6.4. Security threat

War and displacement, kidnapping, extortion, physical violence, threats

Fear of insecurity is a major factor. They are marrying early because of al Sutra. We have war. Many women are afraid of being raped, and if a married woman is raped, she is more likely to be forgiven by her husband but if an unmarried woman is raped, it will destroy her life [40].

 7. Shortcomings/weaknesses of legislation

  7.1. Weakness of legal rules

Not prohibiting early marriage, The possibility of an illegal marriage

I didn’t want to get married, I didn’t know anything about marriage, but my family forced me to get married. My aunt (mom’s sister) tried to stop it, she even talked to a lawyer but she could do nothing because the law does not give the girls any rights [44].

  7.2. Poor performance guarantee

Lack of legal support structures, Poor supervision

We as an NGO follow up cases, where there are reports about parents giving in their teenage girls for marriage and they are arrested, however the biggest problem sometimes comes from the police side, the police accept that these two parties should come and negotiate, and settle their cases outside the court [55].

  7.3. Criminalization

Criminalization of sexual relations outside of marriage, Criminalizing relationships between boys and girls

We have to suggest that our girls get married, you know? From the age of 16, after puberty. And, it sounds like we are trying to save the society so that they don’t accidentally become pregnant and all that [63]