Table 3 Summary of barriers to and facilitators of physical activity
COM-B Component | Theme | No. (%) of studies, (n = 39 max) | Barrier/ facilitator/ mixed | Study ID | Example excerpts and quote(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Capability (Physical) | TDF Domain: Skills (Physical) | ||||
Having the physical skills and fitness to participate in PA | 5(13) | Mixed | Barrier Facilitator [40] Mixed [41] | Barrier Lack of skill. [39] Facilitator Improvement of skills. [40] | |
Lack of energy | 2(5) | Barrier | “Some days my energy is low which makes it hard to get going.” [38] | ||
Physical injury | 2(5) | Barrier | “I had to quit basketball because of torn ligaments” [9] | ||
Capability (Psychological) | TDF Domain: Knowledge | ||||
Knowledge about the benefits of PA | 5(13) | Mixed | Barrier [9] Facilitator Mixed [47] | Barrier “People don’t know about the benefits of physical activities” [47] Facilitator “If I know how the exercise activity or the exercise module can benefit me, like what I can get in return, only then am I motivated to do it”. [45] | |
Lack of knowledge about how to navigate through the gym, what exercises to do and how to use exercise equipment | 4(10) | Barrier | “It’s a bit intimidating for one. Especially when you don’t know how to navigate through the building, like what to do or maybe how to use equipment” [48] | ||
Lack of knowledge about the types of exercise programs and activities that were available on-campus, and how to sign up to participate | 2(5) | Barrier | “I think some students like to try sports like hockey but they don’t know where to go” [51] | ||
Knowledge about how to adapt physical activities for students with a disability to participate | 2(5) | Mixed | Barrier [50] Mixed [52] | Barrier “If they [staff] don’t know the easy ways to adapt activities and that it’s important for us to be active, then how are things ever going to change?” [52] Facilitator Denise [an undergraduate student with a disability] indicated she would modify the dance steps to be included. [52] | |
TDF Domain: Skills (Cognitive and interpersonal) | |||||
Time-management | 6(15) | Mixed | Barrier Facilitator | Barrier Lack of appropriate time management to include exercise into daily routine. (Ranasinghe et al., 2016) Facilitator “Time management had to be improved because I had more responsibilities, more of a social life and greater pressure from university work.” [55] | |
TDF Domain: Behavioural regulation | |||||
Self-monitoring of PA | 1(3) | Facilitator | [56] | “The important part for me is [keeping track] – I know I'm going beyond the average, like the normal number of steps for a person […] - it makes me more motivated.” [56] | |
Feedback on progress towards a PA-related goal | 1(3) | Facilitator | [56] | “When I […] got 80% of my goal, [I would just] go aimlessly for a walk. So that was getting me to walk more. Solely because I was on 80% and I wanted that 100%.” [56] | |
Motivation (Reflective) | TDF Domain: Social professional role and identity | ||||
Perceiving PA as a part of one’s self-identity | 2(5) | Mixed | Barrier [50] Facilitator [38] | Barrier “It was difficult for me to make a comeback to sport and I started in a gym that I think it was horrible, to be honest, I didn’t like it. I don’t know, maybe because I saw an aspect of sport that I didn’t contemplate in my life, in my story. Which was seeing sport simply for beauty purposes, you know what I mean. For the physical appearance, more superficial. So, I have always been very sensitive towards those things, you know what I mean.” [50] Facilitator “It is part of my identity” [38] | |
Students own professional role as a health practitioner motivates PA | 1(3) | Facilitator | [44] | “We being physiotherapists, can’t tell others to exercise without us doing them. There is a motivation from our profession to exercise.” [44] | |
TDF Domain: Beliefs about capabilities | |||||
Self-efficacy to participate in PA | 5(13) | Mixed | Barrier Facilitator [41] | Barrier “When I was very young I tried sports but I am not good at it. When we are not good at something we do not perform. So subsequently you detach from it. So after that I did not try to get involve in sports. Because I have no ability in that. I tried to improve something that I am good at.” [44] Facilitator The majority of students (n = 22) felt successful and confident in their abilities to take part in their current exercise activities. [41] | |
Self-affirmation to participate in PA | 2(5) | Facilitator | ‘‘I’m here, I’ve gotten dressed, I’ve arrived at the gym, I’ve put in the effort, let’s start and finish this workout” [57] | ||
TDF Domain: Intentions | |||||
Motivation to engage in PA | 14(36) | Mixed | Barrier [38, 39, 41, 45, 47, 54, 58,59,60,61,62,63] Facilitator [52] Mixed [49] | Barrier The top three perceived barriers included… lack of motivation (59.0%) [63] Facilitator Insistence and persistence in being physically active. [52] | |
Perception that PA is a chore | 2(5) | Barrier | “See it as a task or chore you have to do to get out of the way so you can do something else.” [38] | ||
Failure to follow through on intentions to engage in PA | 2(5) | Barrier | “Well, I came in here thinking I would swim everyday or something, cause they have a number of swimming pools you know. But that just didn’t happen.” [53] | ||
Self-discipline to engage in PA | 2(5) | Facilitator | “You can be physically active when you have enough self-discipline to do it” [9] | ||
TDF Domain: Beliefs about consequences | |||||
Beliefs about the physical health consequences of PA | 9(23) | Mixed | Barrier [48] Facilitator | Barrier Exercise could wait until graduation without compromising overall health. [48] Facilitator “You need to be active to prevent yourself from having open heart surgery” [57] | |
Maintaining or improving one’s physical appearance | 5(13) | Facilitator | The most cited motivators to exercise were improved […] physical appearance. [65] | ||
Beliefs about the environmental and occupational benefits of exercise | 3(8) | Facilitator | “I like the speediness of my bike and not having to rely on the buses, plus it is better for the environment” [38] | ||
Beliefs about the psychological benefits of exercise | 3(8) | Facilitator | Psychological benefits. [54] | ||
Receiving advice to exercise from a credible source (e.g., health professionals) | 2(5) | Facilitator | Being physically active for health is not a concern unless prescribed by the doctor. [54] | ||
TDF Domain: Goals | |||||
Prioritisation of PA compared to other activities | 20(51) | Mixed | Barrier [9, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43,44,45, 49, 53, 54, 57,58,59,60, 62, 63, 65] Mixed | Barrier Being students, academic performance had become their priority and it had outweighed the perceived health benefits from exercise. [45] Facilitator [Participants who frequently exercised] saw exercise as something that needed to be prioritised. [48] | |
Engaging in PA to achieve an external goal | 4(10) | Facilitator | Students chose to engage in activities because they deemed them valuable and a necessary component of achieving an external goal [41] | ||
Setting specific PA-related goals | 1(3) | Facilitator | [56] | Many participants expressed that they benefited from goal setting. They believed that setting a goal… kept them accountable for their physical activity performance and motivated them to reach that goal [56] | |
Motivation (Automatic) | TDF Domain: Reinforcement | ||||
Experiencing the positive benefits of PA | 9(23) | Facilitator | Facilitator | Facilitator “I love the therapeutic benefits of going on a run when I am stressed.” [38] | |
Past and current habits and routines | 7(18) | Mixed | Barrier [58] Facilitator | Barrier “I prefer doing things regularly and somehow the hobby, the physical activity, it’s suffering from this [inflexible university schedule]” [58] Facilitator In various ways, participants articulated the idea that developing an exercise habit at a young age renders benefits throughout life [48] | |
Experiencing discomfort during or after PA | 3(8) | Barrier | “The thing about exercise that I don’t like is that after exercise, especially when the body is just beginning to adapt to exercising, I’ll get body aches and pain after”.[45] | ||
Sense of accomplishment in relation to PA | 2(5) | Mixed | Barrier [38] Facilitator [41] | Barrier “[Running] never puts me outside my comfort zone or challenges me…” [38] Facilitator Over half (n = 15) cited feeling a sense of accomplishment when they exercised [41] | |
Receiving positive feedback from others | 1(3) | Facilitator | [57] | Additionally, when compliments and positive feedback were given, although not inherently persuasive in nature, students felt these messages increased their efficacy and encouraged them to continue to be physically active. [57] | |
Receiving incentives | 1(3) | Facilitator | [47] | “Making offers will help—if they do many exercise then they have to pay less to use the gym” [47] | |
Experiencing a sense of achievement | 1(3) | Facilitator | [40] | It was found that fun and enjoyment in physical activity/sport is associated primarily with… goal achievement/winning [40] | |
TDF Domain: Emotion | |||||
Enjoyment | 10(26) | Mixed | Barrier Facilitator Mixed | Barrier “I don’t like any kind of sport” [9] Facilitator “Getting the heart rate up is always enjoyable.” [38] | |
Poor mental health and negative affectivity (e.g., fear, sadness, self-consciousness, stress) | 8(21) | Barrier | “My mood definitely impacts my activity behavior. Like if I’m feeling down or like I don’t know it’s harder for me to get to the gym and I know it’s better for me to go to the gym, like I always know I’m going to feel better, but sometimes I just don’t feel like it or I’m super down or I don’t know and then I just even feel like doing anything” [57] | ||
Opportunity (Physical) | TDF Domain: Environmental context and resources | ||||
Lack of time | 25(64) | Barrier | [8, 9, 37, 38, 40, 41, 43, 45,46,47,48,49, 53,54,55, 59,60,61,62, 65, 68,69,70,71,72] | “I became aware of the barriers … where you’ll be studying at night time and you wouldn’t have time to do any exercise and you’re working all day, so …” [70] | |
Easily accessible exercise options, facilities and equipment | 24(62) | Mixed | Barrier [37, 39, 43, 44, 48, 53, 58, 59, 67] Facilitator Mixed | Barrier “I know some people did not do it (exercise program), because they would have to go all the way down to lower residence to take the class … they wanted to join but it was a pain to go down (to lower residence) …” [43] Facilitator “Here on this university campus all sports facilities are close to one another and therefore it ‘invites’ to be physically active” [9] | |
Financial costs | 10(26) | Mixed | Barrier Facilitator Mixed [9] | Barrier “In all kinds of sports price is often a barrier to participate…” [9] Facilitator Furthermore, free student recreation center memberships and intramural sports attracted increased participation due to financial pressures, such as the cost of equipment, and the expense participating in club sports. [55] | |
Weather appropriate for PA | 7(18) | Mixed | Barrier Facilitator [51] | Barrier The climate is not suitable for practising exercise. [71] Facilitator “We went snowboarding and skating. I like these two winter sports, because in Chine, in my city, there is hardly any snow in winter so there is no chance to do that.” [51] | |
Safe and enjoyable environment | 6(15) | Mixed | Barrier Facilitator Mixed | Barrier Lack of safe sporting places. [60] Facilitator …safe surroundings that encouraged walking recreationally [72] | |
Incidental PA (at home, work or university) | 5(13) | Mixed | Barrier [72] Facilitator Mixed [73] | Barrier Students employed in sedentary jobs (e.g., administrative assistant, tutor) perceived their job had a negative impact on their physical activity. [72] Facilitator Including PA into commute/going to places (walk to school, take stairs) [54] | |
Access to a variety of physical activities | 4(10) | Mixed | Barrier [58] Facilitator | Barrier Others named that the kind of sport they were interested in, was not offered by the university sports programme [58] Facilitator “The program offers every kind of activity imaginable, from climbing to kayaking and even field trips” [37] | |
Information provision regarding on-campus exercise options | 4(10) | Mixed | Barrier Facilitator [50] | Barrier “It’s not like we get a lot of information about sports teams and stuff… the [athletic centre] website is so stupid! Even when you try and find out the information, you get sent to this link and that, you get a schedule… it’s like why am I wasting my time? Had I had more info, I would have been more motivated.” [53] Facilitator Other participants went further to add that their associations provide information on PA opportunities. [50] | |
Lack of personalised physical activities to cater to individual fitness needs | 3(8) | Barrier | Barrier Some students expressed the need for more beginner courses to accommodate first-time participants [37] | ||
Lack of university policy and promotion to encourage PA | 3(8) | Barrier | The Institute (university curriculum and structure) has not promoted or motivated them to do sports or physical activity. [44] | ||
Health-concerning behaviours associated with university | 2(5) | Barrier | A second key environmental component that could serve as a barrier to activity was the college scene itself. Students recognized how habits such as eating poorly, drinking, and physical inactivity increased during college. [57] | ||
Listening to music while exercising | 1(3) | Facilitator | [38] | Listening to music while exercising.” [38] | |
Opportunity (Social) | TDF Domain: Social influences | ||||
Exercising with others (impacts accountability, support, enjoyment, friendships etc.) | 25(64) | Mixed | Barrier [38, 39, 44, 48, 53, 54, 56, 58] Facilitator [37, 40, 43, 46, 47, 50, 52, 55, 57, 66, 72] Mixed | Barrier Infrequent exercisers described how the absence of having friends to exercise with was a real barrier. [48] Facilitator Having an exercise partner and having a friend to exercise with were found as important cues to action in this study. [63] | |
Encouragement from others to be physically active (e.g., friends, family, teachers etc.) | 12(31) | Mixed | Barrier Facilitator Mixed | Barrier “Most of my teachers, parents and others motivated to get education and go to the university. So most our target was to go to a university and get a degree which will help to get a job and settle in life. Teachers told us ‘Don’t do sports! Concentrate on education!’ They did not encouraged us to do sports” [44] Facilitator “Well, my dad is pretty pro-working out and staying fit. I think he started a few years ago, and noticed the benefits. So he wants me to do some bodybuilding and stuff… he is like anything you want to take, just take it and I’ll go pay for it.” [53] | |
Competition or relative comparison to others | 7(18) | Mixed | Facilitator Mixed | Barrier Some participants mentioned that comparison to higher standards could be rather demotivating and confronting, especially when they failed to achieve as many steps as others. [56] Facilitator In the exercise group…both men and women were more likely to be motivated to exercise for enhancement of competitiveness [64] | |
Sociocultural norms and religion | 6(15) | Mixed | Barrier Mixed | Barrier … strict rules ‘in terms of religion and culture’ were imposed from her upbringing, impeding her use of the campus athletic facility. Another woman explained that ‘culture does influence whether you exercise’ in describing a sharp contrast between her cultural upbringing and the norms inside a college campus athletic facility. [48] Facilitator PA is an important part of the Japanese culture. [54] | |
Gender | 6(15) | Mixed | Barrier Mixed [66] | Barrier “I don’t feel comfortable sometimes because it’s filled with guys and they just stare and look at you, and I don’t feel comfortable when people watch me work out” [48] Facilitator …culture was seen as a facilitator for physical activity from the males’ perspectives. [66] | |
Being stared at while engaging in PA | 4(10) | Barrier | The experience of being stared at by others can have negative effects on people with disabilities. [50] | ||
Exercise role models (positive and negative) | 3(8) | Facilitator | ‘‘That person doesn’t work out; I don’t want to become that.” [57] | ||