Table 2 Prevalence Ratio for Associations between Study Variables and COVID-19 Stigma, Michigan COVID-19 Recovery Surveillance Study, 2020–2021 (n = 2,759)
Dependent variable: Reporting COVID-19 stigma | Model 1 aPR (95% CI) | Model 2 aPR (95% CI) | Model 3 aPR (95% CI) | Model 4 aPR (95% CI) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Age group (ref: ≥65) | ||||
18–34 | 1.48*** | 1.41** | 1.42** | 1.41** |
(1.22–1.81) | (1.14–1.75) | (1.13–1.78) | (1.12–1.77) | |
35–44 | 1.69*** | 1.65*** | 1.68*** | 1.66*** |
(1.37–2.08) | (1.32–2.07) | (1.33–2.11) | (1.31–2.09) | |
45–54 | 1.36** | 1.34* | 1.34* | 1.30* |
(1.10–1.69) | (1.06–1.69) | (1.06–1.69) | (1.02–1.65) | |
55–64 | 1.31* | 1.29* | 1.29* | 1.26† |
(1.05–1.63) | (1.02–1.63) | (1.02–1.63) | (1.00–1.59) | |
Female (ref: male) | 1.26*** | 1.26*** | 1.24*** | 1.23*** |
(1.13–1.41) | (1.13–1.41) | (1.11–1.38) | (1.10–1.37) | |
Race and ethnicity (ref: non-Hispanic White) | ||||
Hispanic | 1.08 | 1.03 | 1.08 | 1.05 |
(0.90–1.30) | (0.86–1.24) | (0.90–1.29) | (0.87–1.26) | |
Non-Hispanic Black | 1.22* | 1.17† | 1.23* | 1.22* |
(1.04–1.42) | (1.00–1.38) | (1.04–1.45) | (1.04–1.44) | |
Another non-Hispanic race and ethnicity | 1.07 | 1.06 | 1.09 | 1.07 |
(0.91–1.27) | (0.89–1.25) | (0.92–1.29) | (0.91–1.27) | |
Married or cohabiting (ref: not married or cohabiting) | 0.97 (0.86–1.08) | 0.97 (0.87–1.09) | 0.97 (0.87–1.08) | |
Employment status (ref: unemployed) | ||||
Healthcare worker | 1.03 | 1.06 | 1.05 | |
(0.86–1.23) | (0.89–1.27) | (0.88–1.26) | ||
Non-healthcare worker | 1.10 | 1.15* | 1.14† | |
(0.96–1.26) | (1.01–1.32) | (1.00–1.30) | ||
Household income (ref: ≥$75,000) | ||||
<$35,000 | 1.16* | 1.14† | 1.11 | |
(1.01–1.33) | (0.99–1.30) | (0.96–1.27) | ||
$35,000–74,999 | 1.13† | 1.14† | 1.11 | |
(0.99–1.29) | (1.00–1.29) | (0.98–1.26) | ||
Pre-existing diagnosed physical comorbidities (ref: no) | 1.16** (1.04–1.30) | 1.13* (1.01–1.27) | ||
Pre-existing diagnosed psychological or psychiatric condition (ref: no) | 1.31*** (1.15–1.50) | 1.29*** (1.13–1.48) | ||
Body mass index (ref: underweight/normal) | ||||
Overweight | 0.91 | 0.90 | ||
(0.80–1.04) | (0.79–1.03) | |||
Obese | 0.84** | 0.81** | ||
(0.73–0.95) | (0.71–0.93) | |||
Cigarette smoking directly prior to COVID-19 illness (ref: no smoking) | 0.98 (0.83–1.16) | 0.99 (0.84–1.18) | ||
COVID-19 symptom severity (ref: asymptomatic/mild) | ||||
Moderate | 1.21** | |||
(1.05–1.38) | ||||
Severe | 1.34*** | |||
(1.16–1.54) | ||||
Very severe | 1.47*** | |||
(1.23–1.75) | ||||
Hospitalized (ref: no) | 0.99 | |||
(0.82–1.20) |