The societal cost of modifiable risk factors in Singapore

BMC Public Health

Table 1 Risk factor clusters constructed using Level 2 risk factors in GBD 2019

Clusters	Level 2 Risk Factors from GBD 2019
Lifestyle risks	High body mass index	Low physical activity	Dietary risks
Substance risks	Tobacco	Alcohol	Illicit drug use
Metabolic risks	High fasting plasma glucose	High LDL cholesterol	High systolic blood pressure
Environmental and occupational risks	Air pollution	Unsafe water	Occupational risks
Environmental and occupational risks	Other environmental risks	Non-optimal temperature	Occupational risks
Other modifiable risks	Kidney dysfunction	Childhood sexual abuse	Unsafe sex
Other modifiable risks	Maternal malnutrition	Intimate partner violence	Low bone mineral density

The risk factors in this study include only level 2 risk factors from GBD 2019. Some level 2 risk factors contain more detailed risks. For instance, lifestyle risks include high body mass index, low physical activity, and dietary risks. Within dietary risks, there are more detailed risks, such as a diet high in sodium and a diet low in fibre

ISSN: 1471-2458