Table 2 Determinants of exclusive breastfeeding in the first six months after birth in Ghana

1. Maternal factors

Sociodemographic factors

1. Mothers aged 25–29 and 30 + years/ Mothers aged 20–24(33)(34)(35)

2. Mother from the Volta region(39)

3. Household size of more than five members/ higher number of children under five years/ increasing number of children ever born(33)(36)(32)

4. Women living in their own houses(40)

5. Rural women with higher education(38)

6. Household wealth index(44)

7. Mother self-employed(37)

8.Maternal unemployment(35)

1. Unmarried mothers(41)

2. Living in an urban area(17)

3. Residence in a fishing district(33)

4. Akan or northern ethnic groups/ ethnic groups in northern Ghana(36)(34)

5. Urban mothers with tertiary education(34)

6. Paternal primary education(32)

7. Sexual IPV victimisation(31)

8. No access to radio(42)

9. Paternal desire for more children(32)

Workplace related factors

1. Mothers who were artisans (33)

2. Less than three months of maternity leave(43)

Obstetric and Healthcare factors

1. Delivery in a health facility(39)(40)(44)

2. Normal delivery(43)(35)

3. Antenatal care attendance/ increase in antenatal care visits (44)(32)

1. Four or fewer antenatal visits(17)

2. Mother’s HIV-positive status(36)

3. Three to more previous deliveries(35)

Feeding practices, decisions, and support

1. Planned EBF on delivery/positive attitude towards EBF(40)

2. Higher maternal knowledge of EBF(38)(44)

3. Counselled on exclusive breastfeeding/ lactation counselling (13)(45)

4. Not knowing when to start complementary feeding or the belief that it is appropriate to start complementary feeding at 1–3 months or six months(13)

5. Mother-to-mother support group(44)

6. Absence of sore nipple(35)

1. Breastfeeding for three months/Short duration of breastfeeding (41) (13)

2. Counselling on complementary feeding(13)

3. Non-awareness of exclusive breastfeeding(13)

4. Perceived inability to produce enough breast milk(42)

5. Formula feeding recommendation from health workers(43)

6. Lack of support from family(17)

7. Advise by a support person to formula feed(43)

8. Outside pressure to provide other food to the baby(17)

2. Infant factors

Infant characteristics

1. Average size of child at birth/lower weight-for-age z-score (39)(36)

2. infants younger than three months(38)

3. Children who were never fed from a bottle with a nipple(13)

1. Increased age of the child/ older age of infants(37)(32)

2. Admission of a child into a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU)(42)