Table 2 Key characteristics of each included study

Journal of Correctional Health Care

Alex et al. [31]

2017

Quality improvement review process

USA

Deaths occurring from 1 June 2011 to 31 December 2012

Not stated

86,771 discharges; 59 deaths from all-causes [opioid overdose (37.3%); other drug use (8.5%)]

Harm Reduction Journal

Andersson et al. [32]

2020

Retrospective register study

Sweden

Deaths occurring from 1 January 2012 to 31 December 2013 and 1 July 2014 to 30 June 2016

 < 65 years

180 deaths by intoxication

American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry

Barry et al. [33]

2018

Retrospective cohort study

USA

Incarcerated from 2012 to 2014

 ≥ 50 years

Study: re-entry n = 7671 and never incarcerated n = 7671. Death by drug overdose: re-entry n = 28 and never incarcerated n = 10

Drug and Alcohol Dependence

Binswanger et al. [34]

2011

Retrospective cohort study

USA

Released July 1999 to December 2003

Excluded if < 18 years

Cohort: n = 30,237 (38,809 releases). Overdose deaths: n = 103

Annals of Internal Medicine

Binswanger et al. [35]

2013

Cohort study

USA

Releases between 1 July 1999 and 31 December 2009

Excluded if < 18 years or > 84 years

Cohort: n = 76,208 (n = 192 511 releases). Overdose mortality (n = 558)

Addiction

Binswanger et al. [36]

2016

Nested case control study

USA

Released from July 1999 to December 2009

None stated

All Cause deaths: cases n = 699 and controls n = 699. Overdose deaths: cases n = 380 and controls n = 380

Public Health Reports

Binswanger et al. [18]

2016

Retrospective cohort studies

Australia and USA

Released from 1997 to 2007 (Australia) and 1999 to 2009 (USA)

Australian cohort ≥ 17 years and USA cohort ≥ 18 years

Australian cohort n = 69,732 releases, USA cohort n = 192,511 releases. All-cause deaths: Australian cohort n = 1,563, USA cohort n = 2,462. Contributing substance use–related cause of death for any infectious disease as underlying cause: Australian cohort n = 14, USA cohort n = 49

Addiction

Binswanger et al. [37]

2020

Retrospective cohort study

USA

New sentences from 1 January 2003 to 31 December 2006. Follow-up censored at the time of death or 31 December 2012

 ≥ 15 years. Juveniles < 18 years and sentenced as children were excluded

Cohort: n = 140,266 [sentenced to jail (n = 10,788) probation (n = 50,202) jail followed by probation (n = 54,093) prison (n = 24,516) other sentences such as fines or community service (n = 656)]. All-cause deaths n = 7611 (n = 1131 overdoses)

Addiction

Bird et al. [38]

2015

Before and after

UK

Released from 1 January 1996 to 8 October 2007

Not stated. Grouped by 15–34 years and ≥ 35 years

Cohort: n = 131,472 (150,517 releases). Drug-related deaths in first 2 weeks n = 262 and 12-weeks n = 459

Addiction

Bird et al. [39]

2016

Pre–post evaluation of a national policy

UK

Deaths from 2006 to 2010 and 2011 to 2013

Not stated. Grouped by < 35 years and ≥ 35 years

1970 opioid related death (ORDs) in 2006–10; 193 released from prison in the 4 weeks prior to death. 1212 ORDs in 2011–13; 76 released from prison in the 4 weeks prior to death

Drug and Alcohol Dependence

Brinkley-Rubinstein et al. [40]

2018

Not stated (retrospective cohort)

USA

Deaths from 2014 to 2015

 ≥ 18 years

530 fatal overdoses; 79 had past year incarceration

Jama Network Open

Brinkley-Rubinstein et al. [20]

2019

Retrospective cohort study

USA

Released from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2015

Not stated

Cohort: 229,274 (398,158 releases). 14,086 deaths after release (1321 opioid overdose deaths)

Addiction

Bukten et al. [41]

2017

Prospective cohort study

Norway

Released from (1 January 2000 to 31 December 2014 and deaths from 2000 to 2014

Not stated

Cohort: 92,663 (153,604 releases). 1–6 months: all-causes deaths n = 882, overdose deaths n = 493

Journal of Addiction Medicine

Calcaterra et al. [42]

2012

Retrospective cohort study

USA

Released from 1 July 1999 to 31 December 2003

Not stated

Cohort: n = 30,237. Deaths: all-causes n = 443, Cocaine only-Related Deaths n = 49

Lancet Psychiatry

Chang et al. [27]

2015

Nationwide longitudinal cohort study

Sweden

Imprisoned since 1 January 2000 and released before 31 December 2009

Not stated. Table shows ≥ 16 years

Cohort: 47,326. Deaths: all-causes n = 2874

Addiction

Degenhardt et al. [43]

2014

Retrospective data linkage study

Australia

Entered OST from 1985 to 2010 and released from 2000 to 2012

Not stated. Median age range of first incarceration 14–64 years

Cohort: 16,453 (60,161 releases). Deaths: all deaths (2000–March 2012) n = 1050, accidental drug-induced deaths (2000–10) n = 381

Addiction

Forsyth et al. [44]

2014

Retrospective cohort study

Australia

Released from 1 January 1994 to 31 December 2007

Not stated. Table shows 17 to ≥ 60 years

Cohort n = 42,015 (82,315 releases). Deaths: all-cause n = 2158, drug-related n = 450

Addiction

Forsyth et al. [45]

2018

Prospective cohort study

Australia

Recruited within 6 weeks of expected release from August 2008 to July 2010. Censored on 31 May 2013 or death

Not stated. Characteristics reported for < 25 years and > 25 years

Cohort n = 1320. Deaths: all-cause n = 42 including drug-related n = 14

Addiction

Gan et al. [46]

2021

Cohort study

Canada

Released from 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2014 and follow‐up from 1 January 2015 to 31 December 2017

 ≥ 18 years

Cohort: n = 765,690 at baseline, n = 5743 incarceration history. Deaths from drug overdose n = 634

Scandinavian Journal of Public Health

Gjersing et al. [47]

2013

Retrospective registry study

Norway

Deaths from 1 January 2006 to 31 December 2008 (released up to 6 months before death)

15–65 years

Cohort: n = 231. Released from prison within 6 months before death n = 18

JAMA Psychiatry

Green et al. [48]

2018

Retrospective cohort analysis

USA

Deaths from 1 January to 30 June 2016 and from 1 January to 30 June 2017 (defined recently incarcerated as 12 months since release)

Not stated. Table shows ≥ 18 years

1 January 2016 to 30 June 2016: n = 4005 releases. 2016 period: 26 of 179 overdose deaths were recently incarcerated. 1 January 2017 to 30 June 2017: n = 3426 releases. 2017 period: 9 of 157 overdose deaths were recently incarcerated

Plos One

Groot et al. [49]

2016

Descriptive retrospective longitudinal study

Canada

Deaths from 2006 and 2013

 ≥ 18 years

Cohort: n = 6,978 deaths by drug toxicity (n = 702 deaths within one year of release)

Drug and Alcohol Dependence

Haas et al. [19]

2021

Retrospective observational case–control study

USA

Released by 30 November 30 2018. Deaths from 1 January 2014 to 31 December 2018. Pilot program jail-based methadone treatment from October 2013 and April 2014

Not stated. Table ≥ 20 years

Cohort: n = 1564. Fatal overdoses n = 29

Public Health Reports

Hacker et al. [50]

2018

Not stated

USA

Deaths from 2008 to 2014

Not stated. Table shows 0–84 years

Opioid-related overdose deaths n = 1399, matched population n = 957. N = 211 incarcerated in year before death

Drug and Alcohol Dependence

Hakansson et al. [51]

2013

Prospective follow-up study

Sweden

ASI assessments from 2001 to 2006. Deaths until 31 December 2008

20–64 years

Cohort: n = 4081 released. Total deaths n = 166, accidental overdose n = 44, substance-use disorder n = 3

Addiction

Huang et al. [22]

2011

Prospective cohort study

Taiwan

Released on 16 July 2007. Follow-up until 31 December 2008

No stated. Table shows ≤ 29 years to ≥ 60 years

Cohort: n = 4357. Total deaths n = 142, n = 48 drug overdose and n = 16 drug-related infections

Medical Journal of Australia

Kinner et al. [30]

2011

Not stated

Australia

WA cohort: Released from 1 January 1994 to 31 December 1999. Deaths until to 31 December 2003. NSW cohort: Released from 1 January 1988 to 31 December 2002. Deaths until 31 December 2002

Not stated. Table shows < 25 years, 25–39 years, ≥ 40 years

Total n = 50,405, WA cohort: n = 16 162 and NSW cohort n = 82 650. Total of deaths: WA cohort: 699 and NSW cohort: 4827

Canadian Medical Association Journal Open

Kouyoumdjian et al. [52]

2016

Retrospective cohort study

Canada

In custody in 2000. Deaths until 2012

Not stated. Table shows ≥ 15 years

Cohort: n = 48 166. Deaths: all-causes n = 4126, overdose n = 563

Drug and Alcohol Dependence

Krawczyk et al. [26]

2020

Not stated

USA

Criminal justice records from 2013 to 2016

 ≥ 18 years

Cohort: n = 89,591. Incarceration subgroup n = 22,145 (n = 73 opioid overdose deaths in subgroup)

Drug and Alcohol Dependence

Larochelle et al. [53]

2019

A retrospective cohort study

USA

Followed from January 2014 to December 2014 or death

 ≥ 11 years

Cohort 6,717,390 person-years of follow-up. Opioid overdose deaths n = 1315

American journal of epidemiology

Lim et al. [54]

2012

Retrospective cohort study

USA

Incarceration from 1 January 2001 to 31 December 2005

16–89 years

Cohort: n = 155,272.Deaths n = 1,149, drug-related deaths n = 219

Lancet HIV

Loeliger et al. [55]

2018

Retrospective cohort

USA

Admitted and released from 1 January 2007 to 31 December 2014. Followed until 31 December 2014 or death

 ≥ 18 years

Cohort: n = 1350. Deaths n = 184. For deaths with cause reported (n = 170), drug overdose n = 26

Addiction

Marsden et al. [28]

2017

Prospective observational cohort study

UK

Recruited from September 2010 to August 2013. Released from September 2010 to October 2014. Follow-up until February 2016

 ≥ 18 years

Cohort: n = 12,260 (15,141 releases). At release, OST exposed (n = 8,645) or OST unexposed (n = 6,496). First year after release, n = 160 deaths, fatal drug-related poisoning n = 102

Drug and Alcohol Dependence

Pizzicato et al. [56]

2018

Retrospective cohort study

USA

Released 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2016. Deaths from 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2016

Not stated. Table shows 15–84 years

Cohort: 82,780. Deaths n = 2,522, overdose deaths n = 837

American Journal of Public Health

Ranapurwala et al. [21]

2018

Retrospective cohort study

USA

Released from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2015. Death from 1 January 2000 to 31 December 2016

Not stated. Table shows ≥ 18 years

Cohort: n = 229,274 (387 913 releases). Out-of-prison deaths n = 14,086, opioid overdose deaths n = 1329

Annals of Epidemiology

Rosen et al. [57]

2020

Not stated

USA

Released from 1 January 2008 to 30 June 2015. Deaths from 2008 to 2016

 ≥ 18 years

Cohort: n = 111,479. Deaths: all-cause n = 3,617, alcohol and Substance-related disorders n = 172, opioid poisoning (illicit & prescription) n = 460

Jama Psychiatry

Saloner et al. [29]

2020

Predictive modeling study

USA

Records in 2015. Deaths occurring in 2016

18–80 years

Cohort: n = 2 294 707. N = 1537 released from prison

American Journal of Epidemiology

Spaulding et al. [23]

2011

Not stated

USA

Incarcerated on 30 June 1991. Deaths until 31 December 2006

Not stated

Cohort: n = 23,510. Deaths: n = 2,650. Out of prison deaths n = 2,244. Following Release From Prison, deaths by accidental poisoning n = 80

American Journal of Public Health

Spaulding et al. [24]

2015

Cohort Study

USA

Incarcerated on 30 June 1991. Deaths until 2010

Not stated

Cohort: n = 23 510. Deaths: total n = 3863, accidental poisoning total n = 123

Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health

Spittal et al. [58]

2014

Retrospective cohort study

Australia

Released from 1 January 1994 to 31 December 2007. Deaths until 31 December 2007

 ≥ 17 years

Cohort: n = 41,970. Deaths: n = 2,158, drug related causes n = 396

Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences

Spittal et al. [59]

2019

Nested case–control study

Australia

Released from 1 January 1994 to 31 December 2007

Not stated

Cohort: n = 286 cases and n = 286 controls. Deaths: drug overdose n = 93

Australian and New Zealand journal of public health

Van Dooren et al. [60]

2013

Not stated

Australia

Released from 1 January 1994 to 31 December 2007. Deaths in 1996, 2001 and 2006

Not stated. adult prisons: Defined young at index release < 25 years and older at index release ≥ 25 years

Cohort: n = 42,015. Deaths: all-causes, young at index release n = 92 and older at index release n = 271, drug-related, young at index release n = 40 and older at index release n = 79

Addiction

Victor et al. [25]

2021

Retrospective cohort study

USA

Deaths until 31 December 2007

Not stated

Cohort: n = 27,940. Deaths: accidental overdose death n = 237

Journal of Affective Disorders

Webb et al. [61]

2013

Nested case–control study

Denmark

Contact with the criminal justice system from 1 January 1980. Suicides from 1994 to 2006

 ≥ 15 years

Cohort: n = 9708 cases and n = 188,134 controls. N = 9708 suicides; n = 6904 men and n = 2804 women

Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law

Wortzel et al. [62]

2012

Data linkage study

USA

Released from 1999 to 2003

 ≥ 18 years

Cohort: n = 3,806 veterans, compared with n = 26,431 nonveterans. Deaths: total all-causes n = 443 and total overdose n = 103