Table 2 Association between parental education & child feeding in Bangladesh according to included articles

Ahmed et al. (1999) [35]

Colostrum feeding

Maternal

Unadjusted

Colostrum feeding was positively associated with 1–5 years of parental education but negatively associated with ≥ 6 years of parental education compared to parents with no education. The associations were not statistically significant

0 year of schooling^a

1.00

Not mentioned

-

Logistic regression

1–5 years of schooling

1.27

> 0.10

≥ 6 years of schooling

0.91

> 0.10

Paternal

0 year of schooling^a

1.00

Not mentioned

-

Logistic regression

1–5 years of schooling

1.02

> 0.10

 ≥ 6 years of schooling

0.70

> 0.10

Exclusive breastfeeding

Maternal

Unadjusted

Exclusive breastfeeding was negatively associated with parental education

0 year of schooling^a

1.00

Not mentioned

-

Logistic regression

1–5 years of schooling

0.72

< 0.10

≥ 6 years of schooling

0.49

< 0.01

Paternal

0 year of schooling^a

1.00

Not mentioned

-

Logistic regression

1–5 years of schooling

0.92

> 0.10

≥ 6 years of schooling

0.91

> 0.10

Ahmmed & Manik (2021) [39]

Early Initiation of breastfeeding

Parental

Year, Sex of child, mode of delivery, household member, exposure to media, birth order, type of birth, mother’s age at first birth, mother’s age at first marriage, delivery facility, BMI, place of residence, division, wealth index, mother’s working status

Children whose parents were educated were more likely to early initiation of breastfeeding than the children whose parents were uneducated

Both uneducated^a

1.00

-

-

Multilevel logistic regression

Any one educated

1.07

0.97, 1.18

0.182

Both educated

1.14

1.04, 1.26

0.007

Akter & Rahman (2010) [36]

Breastfeeding cessation

Maternal

Age of mother, age at marriage, sex of child, parity, contraceptive use, delivery status, place of residence, division/region, education level of husband, work status of respondent, religion

Likelihood of breastfeeding cessation increased with an increase in maternal education

No education

0.79

0.68, 0.92

< 0.01

Cox’s proportional hazard model

Primary

0.82

0.71, 0.94

< 0.01

Secondary

0.89

0.78, 1.02

< 0.05

Higher^a

1.00

-

-

Paternal

Age of mother, maternal education, age at marriage, sex of child, parity, contraceptive use, delivery status, place of residence, division/region, work status of respondent, religion

Paternal education was not associated with breastfeeding cessation

No education

1.00

0.92, 1.08

> 0.1

Cox’s proportional hazard model

Primary

1.00

0.93, 1.08

> 0.1

Secondary and higher^a

1.00

-

-

Akter & Rahman (2010) [46]

Breastfeeding cessation

Maternal

Residence, age at marriage, division/region, religion, work status, mother's age, parity, use of contraceptives

Likelihood of breastfeeding cessation increased with an increase in maternal education

Illiterate

0.76

0.67, 0.87

0.00

Cox’s proportional hazard model

Primary

0.82

0.72, 0.94

0.00

Secondary

0.87

0.77, 0.98

0.03

Higher^a

1.00

-

-

Akter, et al. (2016) [40]

Immediate Initiation of breastfeeding

Maternal

Unadjusted

The odds of immediate breastfeeding were higher among educated parents

Secondary^a

1.00

-

Not mentioned

Logistic regression

Primary

0.88

0.63, 1.22

No education

0.79

0.57, 1.10

Paternal

Secondary^a

1.00

-

Not mentioned

Logistic regression

Primary

0.97

0.74, 1.26

No education

0.88

0.68, 1.13

Al Mamun et al. (2022) [20]

Exclusive breastfeeding

Maternal

Religion, mother’s age, mother’s level of education, type of delivery of the child, birth rank of the child, colostrum feeding of the child, breastfeeding initiation, frequency of breastfeeding, household food insecurity level

Likelihood of exclusive breastfeeding is higher among mothers with various levels of education compared with illiterate mothers

Illiterate^a

1.00

-

-

Logistic regression

Primary

3.36

1.71, 6.60

0.00

SSC/Dakhil

1.96

0.97, 3.95

0.06

HSC/Alim

1.82

0.53, 6.30

0.34

Graduate

4.41

1.00, 19.42

0.05

Madrasha education^*

5.08

1.31, 19.72

0.02

Timely initiation of complementary feeding

Maternal

Mother’s age, mother’s level of education, birth rank of the child, colostrum feeding of the child, breastfeeding initiation, frequency of breastfeeding, household food insecurity level

Compared to illiterate mothers, mothers with SSC/Dakhil and HSC/Alim were less likely to have a timely initiation of complementary feeding and mothers with primary, graduate and madrasa education were more likely to have a timely initiation of complementary feeding

Illiterate^a

1.00

-

-

Logistic regression

Primary

1.18

0.49, 2.84

0.71

SSC/Dakhil

0.71

0.29, 1.76

0.46

HSC/Alim

0.65

0.10, 4.12

0.65

Graduate

1.35

0.12, 14.80

0.81

Madrasha education

2.91

0.38, 22.34

0.31

Ali et al. (2019) [47]

Minimum dietary diversity (dietary diversity score)

Maternal

Sex of child, mothers’ age, mothers’ employment status, household monthly expenditure on food, household food security status, wealth quintile

Mothers with no education had more risk of not achieving minimum dietary diversity compared with counterparts

No education^a

1.00^b

Not mentioned

-

Linear regression

Primary incomplete

0.02^b

0.72

Primary to secondary

0.15^b

< 0.05

Basnet et al. (2020) [48]

Exclusive breastfeeding

Maternal

Maternal knowledge, nutritional status, mental well-being, decision-making capacity, employment, support in chores, perceived instrumental support

Maternal education had positive associations with exclusive breastfeeding

1–5 years schooling^a

1.00

Not mentioned

-

Multiple logistic regression

No schooling

1.36

≥ 0.05

6–9 years schooling

1.00

≥ 0.05

10–12 years schooling

1.16

≥ 0.05

Minimum meal frequency

Maternal

Maternal knowledge, nutritional status, mental well-being, decision-making, employment, support in chores, perceived instrumental support

Maternal education had positive associations with minimum meal frequency

1–5 years schooling^a

1.00

Not mentioned

-

Multiple logistic regression

No schooling

1.18

≥ 0.05

6–9 years schooling

0.95

≥ 0.05

10–12 years schooling

1.18

≥ 0.05

Dietary diversity

Maternal

Maternal knowledge, nutritional status, mental well-being, decision-making capacity, employment, support in chores, perceived instrumental support

Negative association were between dietary diversity and no schooling

1–5 years schooling

Ref^b

Not mentioned

-

Multiple linear regression

No schooling

-0.12^b

≥ 0.05

6–9 years schooling

0.061^b

≥ 0.05

10–12 years schooling

0.26^b

≥ 0.05

Blackstone & Sanghvi (2018) [45]

Minimum dietary diversity for 6-23 m children in 2011

Maternal

Wealth index, frequency of television watching, frequency of newspaper reading, decision making, place of delivery, number of antenatal visits, employment, region of residence

The minimum dietary diversity was positively associated with the increase in education levels of mothers in 2011

No education^a

1.00

-

-

Logistic regression

Primary education

1.36

0.94, 2.00

≥ 0.05

Secondary + education

1.91

1.25, 2.63

< 0.01

Minimum dietary diversity for 6-23 m children in 2014

Maternal

Wealth index, frequency of television watching, frequency of newspaper reading, decision making, place of delivery, number of antenatal visits, employment, region of residence

The minimum dietary diversity was positively associated with the increase in education levels of mothers in 2014

No education^a

1.00

-

-

Logistic regression

Primary education

1.36

0.93, 1.98

≥ 0.05

Secondary + education

2.28

1.58, 3.27

< 0.001

Complementary feeding for 18-23 m children in 2011

Maternal

Wealth index, frequency of television watching, frequency of newspaper reading, decision making, place of delivery, number of antenatal visits, employment, region of residence

The odds of complementary feeding among children were higher if maternal education level was higher in 2011

No education^a

1.00

-

-

Logistic regression

Primary education

1.45

0.80, 2.66

≥ 0.05

Secondary + education

1.53

0.93, 3.13

≥ 0.05

Complementary feeding for 18-23 m children in 2014

Maternal

Wealth index, frequency of television watching, frequency of newspaper reading, decision making, place of delivery, number of antenatal visits, employment, region of residence

The odds of complementary feeding among children were higher if maternal education level was higher in 2014

No education^a

1.00

-

-

Logistic regression

Primary education

1.25

0.71, 2.21

≥ 0.05

Secondary + education

2.58

1.49, 4.44

< 0.01

Campbell et al. (2016) [34]

Minimum dietary diversity from home food at age 18 months

Maternal

Living standard index of socioeconomic status, household food insecurity score, sex

The probability of feeding minimum dietary diversity from home food at age 18 months was higher among mothers with higher educational levels

None^a

1.00

-

Not mentioned

Logistic regression

1–9 years

1.63

1.40, 1.90

SSC passed

2.51

1.83, 3.46

≥ 11 years

3.72

2.72, 5.10

Chowdhury et al. (2016) [37]

Adequate complementary feeding practices

Maternal

Children age(months), sex of child, father’s education, father’s employment status, socioeconomic status, watching television, listening radio, reading newspaper/magazine, food insecurity, place of residence, region of residence

Adequate complementary feeding practices were higher among illiterate mothers compared to their literate counterparts

Illitterate

1.48

0.46, 4.69

0.51

Logistic regression

Literate^a

1.00

-

-

Paternal

Children age(months), sex of child, mother’s education, father’s employment status, socioeconomic status, watching television, listening radio, reading newspaper/magazine, food insecurity, place of residence, region of residence

Adequate complementary feeding practices were higher among illiterate fathers compared to their illiterate counterparts

Illitterate

0.32

0.11, 0.95

0.04

Logistic regression

Literate^a

1.00

-

-

Dintyala (2020) [49]

Exclusive breastfeeding at 6 months

Maternal

Number of ANC visits, mother’s age, mother’s age, wealth quintile, place of delivery, postnatal breastfeeding counseling, ANC by medically trained persons

Compared to the mothers with higher education, mothers with primary & secondary education had greater odds of exclusive breastfeeding but fewer odds of mothers with no education

No education

0.77

0.47, 1.24

0.28

Logistic regression

Primary

1.16

0.78, 1.71

0.47

Secondary

1.71

1.22, 2.38

0.00

Higher^a

1.00

-

-

Giashuddin & Kabir (2004) [50]

Stop breastfeeding

Maternal

Maternal age, place of residence, economic status, delivery assistance, preceding birth interval

Mothers with at least secondary level of education were more likely to stop breastfeeding than less or uneducated mothers

No education^a

1.00^c

-

Not mentioned

Cox’s regression model

Primary

0.96^c

0.84, 1.09

Secondary

1.19^c

1.01, 1.28

Higher

1.25^c

1.12, 1.86

Hasan et al. (2020) [44]

Early Initiation of breastfeeding

Maternal

Maternal age, maternal occupation, family income, live birth, types of delivery, ANC check-up, pre-lacteal feeds given, counseling before delivery, baby’s birth weight, skin-to-skin contact after delivery

Mothers' education level significantly increased the likelihood of early initiation of breastfeeding among mothers

Illiterate^a

1.00

-

-

Multiple logistic regression

Primary

2.82

1.19, 6.67

0.019

SSC or above

4.04

1.59, 10.26

0.003

Hossain et al. (2018) [21]

Exclusive breastfeeding

Maternal

Region, mother’s age, father’s education, mothers’ occupation, fathers’ occupation, mass media access, BMI of mother, total children ever born, delivery mode for last pregnancy, delivery place, antenatal care, postnatal care for mothers, breastfeeding counseling during first two days, current age of children

Compared to mothers with higher education level, relatively less educated mothers were more likely to exclusively breastfeed their children

Illiterate

1.87

0.73, 4.76

0.19

Binary multivariable logistic regression

Primary

2.28

1.05, 4.93

0.04

Secondary

1.75

0.95, 3.24

0.07

Higher^a

1.00

-

-

Paternal

Region, mother’s age, mothers’ education, mothers’ occupation, fathers’ occupation, mass media access, BMI of mother, total children ever born, delivery mode for last pregnancy, delivery place, antenatal care, postnatal care for mothers, breastfeeding counseling during first two days, current age of children

Compared to fathers with higher education, fathers with secondary or no education had higher odds of achieving exclusive breastfeeding in contrast to fathers with primary level of education

Illiterate

1.16

0.54, 2.51

0.70

Binary multivariable logistic regression

Primary

0.98

0.50, 1.92

0.96

Secondary

1.24

0.69, 2.25

0.47

Higher^a

1.00

-

-

Islam et al. (2019) [6]

Breastfeeding continuation

Maternal

Division (administrative region), place of residence, father’s education level, religion, wealth index, mother’s body mass index, source of drinking water, toilet facility, household member, currently amenorrhea, currently abstaining, sex of child, child is twin

Breastfeeding duration was negatively associated with parental education

Illiterate^a

1.00

Not mentioned

-

Polytomous Logistic regression

Primary

1.03

0.80

Secondary

1.02

0.88

Higher

0.75

0.08

Paternal

Division (administrative region), place of residence, mother’s education level, religion, wealth index, mother’s body mass index, source of drinking water, toilet facility, household member, currently amenorrhea, currently abstaining, sex of child, child is twin

Illiterate^a

1.00

Not mentioned

-

Polytomous Logistic regression

Primary

0.67

0.00

Secondary

0.68

0.00

Higher

0.73

0.03

Islam et al. (2019) [51]

Early breastfeeding Initiation

Maternal

Division (administrative region), type of residence, place of delivery, Mother’s BMI, age at first marriage, wealth index, age at first birth, antenatal care visit, mode of delivery

The higher the level of mothers’ educational attainments, the lower the odds of early initiation of breastfeeding

Uneducated^a

1.00

-

-

Multivariable logistic regression

Primary

0.87

0.70, 1.09

0.22

Secondary

0.81

0.66, 0.99

0.05

Higher

0.58

0.44, 0.78

0.00

Jain & Bongaarts (1981) [32]

Breastfeeding continuation

Maternal

Age, parity, infant deaths, residence, sex of child, workplace of wife

Highly educated mothers breastfed their children for a shorter duration

Not highly educated^a

1.00^b

Not mentioned

Not mentioned

Multiple linear regression

Highly educated

-5.99^b

Kabir et al. (2012) [5]

Not introducing solid, semi solid, and soft foods to infants 6–8 months

Maternal

Gender of baby, age of child, birth order, preceding birth interval, diarrhea, ARI (acute respiratory infection), maternal age, maternal age at child’s birth, mother’s literacy, mother’s working status, mother’s BMI, mother’s religion, father’s education, father’s occupation, marital status, source of drinking water, household wealth index, reads newspaper or magazine, listens to radio, watches television, mode of delivery, type of delivery assistance, antenatal clinic visit, timing of postnatal checkup, residence, geographical region

Mothers with higher educational attainments were more likely to introduce solid, semi solid & soft foods to their children of 6–8 months of age

Secondary & above^a

1.00

-

-

Logistic regression

Primary

2.31

1.07, 4.96

0.03

No education

2.14

1.08, 4.23

0.03

Not meeting minimum dietary diversity among children aged 6–23 months

Maternal

Gender of baby, age of child, birth order, preceding birth interval, diarrhea, ARI (acute respiratory infection), maternal age, maternal age at child’s birth, mother’s literacy, mother’s working status, mother’s BMI, mother’s religion, father’s education, father’s occupation, marital status, source of drinking water, household wealth index, reads newspaper or magazine, listens to radio, watches television, mode of delivery, type of delivery assistance, antenatal clinic visit, timing of postnatal checkup, residence, geographical region

Mothers with higher educational attainments were more likely to attain minimum dietary diversity for their children aged 6–23 months of age

Secondary & above^a

1.00

-

-

Logistic regression

Primary

1.41

1.03, 1.94

0.03

No education

1.69

1.14, 2.54

0.01

Not meeting the minimum meal frequency among children aged 6–23 months

Maternal

Gender of baby, age of child, birth order, preceding birth interval, diarrhea, ARI (acute respiratory infection), maternal age, maternal age at child’s birth, mother’s literacy, mother’s working status, mother’s BMI, mother’s religion, father’s education, father’s occupation, marital status, source of drinking water, household wealth index, reads newspaper or magazine, listens to radio, watches television, mode of delivery, type of delivery assistance, antenatal clinic visit, timing of postnatal checkup, residence, geographical region

Mothers with higher educational attainments were more likely to meet minimum meal frequency for their children aged 6–23 months of age

Secondary & above^a

1.00

-

-

Logistic regression

Primary

1.26

0.88, 1.82

0.21

No education

1.70

1.09, 2.67

0.02

Not meeting minimum acceptable diet

Maternal

Gender of baby, age of child, birth order, preceding birth interval, diarrhea, ARI (acute respiratory infection), `maternal age, maternal age at child’s birth, mother’s literacy, mother’s working status, mother’s BMI, mother’s religion, father’s education, father’s occupation, marital status, source of drinking water, household wealth index, reads newspaper or magazine, listens to radio, watches television, mode of delivery, type of delivery assistance, antenatal clinic visit, timing of postnatal checkup, residence, geographical region

Mothers with higher educational attainments were more likely to meet a minimum acceptable diet for their children

Secondary & above^a

1.00

-

-

Logistic regression

Primary

1.36

1.01, 1.84

0.05

No education

1.73

1.20, 2.49 

0.003

Karim et al. (2019) [52]

Early Breastfeeding Initiation

Maternal

Mother’s age at childbirth, mother’s religion, wealth index, place of residence, division, birth order of child, number of ANC visits, mode of delivery, place of delivery, child’s size at birth, PNC within one hour of childbirth, skin-to-skin contact

Mothers with higher levels of education were less likely to initiate early breastfeeding compared to uneducated mothers

No education^a

1.00

-

-

Multivariable logistic regression

Primary

0.96

0.70, 1.32

0.79

Secondary or higher

0.97

0.71, 1.32

0.86

Khan et al. (2020) [41]

Breastfeeding termination

Maternal

Survey year, heard about family planning, division, child’s sex, maternal age at childbirth, fathers’ education, maternal working status, contraceptive use, maternal malnutrition, birth order, wealth index, religion, exposure to media, and place of residence

Educated mothers were more likely to terminate breastfeeding their children earlier

No education^a

1.00

Not mentioned

-

Cox’s proportional hazard model

Primary education

1.41

< 0.05

Secondary or higher

1.70

< 0.001

Paternal

Survey year, heard about family planning, division, child’s sex, maternal age at childbirth, mothers’ education, maternal working status, contraceptive use, maternal malnutrition, birth order, wealth index, religion, exposure to media, and place of residence

The risk of breastfeeding termination was higher among children with paternal secondary or higher education and lower among with paternal primary education compared to their uneducated counterparts

No education^a

1.00

Not mentioned

≥ 0.05

Cox’s proportional hazard model

Primary education

0.94

≥ 0.05

Secondary or higher

1.06

≥ 0.05

Khan et al. (2022) [53]

Minimum dietary diversity (MDD)

Maternal

Number of HH member, age of HH head, sex of HH head, maternal occupation, maternal malnutrition, sex of children, age of children, maternal age at childbirth, morbidity, maternal decision making, place of residence, wealth index, paternal occupation, birth order, religion, exposure to media, ANC visit, PNC Visit

Maternal education levels were positively associated with minimum dietary diversity of their children

No education^a

1.00

-

-

Multilevel logistic regression

Primary

1.35

0.91, 2.00

< 0.05

Secondary

2.48

1.68, 3.67

< 0.05

Higher

3.86

2.40, 6.20

< 0.05

Minimum meal frequency (MMF)

Maternal

Number of HH member, age of HH head, sex of HH head, maternal occupation, maternal malnutrition, sex of children, age of children, maternal age at childbirth, morbidity, maternal decision making, place of residence, wealth index, paternal occupation, birth order, religion, exposure to media, ANC visit, PNC visit

Maternal education levels were positively associated with minimum meal frequency of their children

No education^a

1.00

-

-

Multilevel logistic regression

Primary

0.99

0.72, 1.37

< 0.05

Secondary

1.43

1.04, 1.98

< 0.05

Higher

1.82

1.18, 2.79

< 0.05

Minimum acceptable diet (MAD)

Maternal

Number of HH member, age of HH head, sex of HH head, maternal occupation, maternal malnutrition, sex of children, age of children, maternal age at childbirth, morbidity, maternal decision making, place of residence, wealth index, paternal occupation, birth order, religion, exposure to media, ANC visit, PNC visit

Maternal education levels were positively associated with minimum acceptable diet of their children

No education^a

1.00

-

-

Multilevel logistic regression

Primary

0.98

0.71, 1.35

< 0.05

Secondary

1.38

1.00, 1.90

< 0.05

Higher

1.72

1.13, 2.61

< 0.05

Mihrshahi et al. (2010) [54]

Not timely initiation of breastfeeding

Maternal

Unadjusted

The odds of not timely initiation of breastfeeding decreased with an increase in parental education

None^a

1.00

-

-

Logistic regression

Primary

0.77

0.53, 1.12

≥ 0.05

Secondary or above

0.61

0.44, 0.84

< 0.01

Paternal

None^a

1.00

-

-

Logistic regression

Primary

0.81

0.61, 1.07

≥ 0.05

Secondary or above

0.59

0.38, 0.92

< 0.05

Not exclusively breastfeeding

Maternal

Maternal working status, mother’s marital status, husband’s education, mother’s age, birth order of child, preceding birth interval, sex of child, age of child, place of delivery, type of delivery assistance, number of antenatal care visits, timing of postnatal checkups, mother’s BMI, mother reads newspaper, mother listens to radio, mother watches television, household wealth index number of categories of decision in which women have final say, region of residence, geographic region

Odds of not exclusively breastfeeding was higher among educated mothers compared to non-educated groups

None^a

1.00

-

-

Multiple logistic regression

Primary

2.23

1.32, 3.76

< 0.01

Secondary or above

1.82

0.94, 3.55

≥ 0.05

Bottle feeding practice

Paternal

Maternal working status, mother’s marital status, husband’s education, mother’s age, birth order of child, preceding birth interval, sex of child, age of child, place of delivery, type of delivery assistance, number of antenatal care visits, timing of postnatal checkups, mother’s BMI, mother reads newspaper, mother listens to radio, mother watches television, household wealth index number of categories of decision in which women have final say, region of residence, geographic region

Odds of bottle-feeding practices were increased with the increase in paternal education

None^a

1.00

-

-

Multiple logistic regression

Primary

1.06

0.73, 1.54

≥ 0.05

Secondary or above

2.17

1.30, 3.64

< 0.01

Not given timely complementary foods

Maternal

Unadjusted

The odds of not timely giving complementary foods decreased with an increase in maternal education

None^a

1.00

-

-

Multiple logistic regression

Primary

0.85

0.48, 1.50

≥ 0.05

Secondary or above

0.62

0.37, 1.06

≥ 0.05

Paternal

None^a

1.00

-

-

Multiple logistic regression

Primary

0.57

0.35, 0.93

< 0.05

Secondary or above

0.59

0.29, 1.20

≥ 0.05

Na et al. (2018) [42]

Introduction of solid, semi-solid, and soft foods

Maternal

Year, children’s age, birth order, birth interval, age-appropriate vaccination, maternal age, BMI, type of delivery assistance, antenatal care visits, father’s age, paternal education, household wealth, geographical region, rank of access to healthcare

Introduction of solid, semi-solid & soft foods was positively associated with maternal education

No education

0.68

0.46, 1.03

0.07

Multivariable multilevel logistic regression

Primary

0.89

0.64, 1.24

0.49

Secondary or higher^a

1.00

-

-

Paternal

Year, children’s age, birth order, birth interval, age-appropriate vaccination, maternal age, education, BMI, type of delivery assistance, antenatal care visits, father’s age, household wealth, geographical region, rank of access to healthcare

Compared to secondary or higher educated fathers, primary educated fathers had higher and uneducated fathers had lower odds of introducing solid, semi-solid, and soft foods

No education

0.86

0.59, 1.24

0.41

Multivariable multilevel logistic regression

Primary

1.29

0.92, 1.80

0.14

Secondary or higher^a

1.00

-

-

Minimum meal frequency

Maternal

Year, children’s age, birth order, birth interval, age-appropriate vaccination, maternal age, BMI, type of delivery assistance, antenatal care visits, father’s age, paternal education, household wealth, geographical region, rank of access to healthcare

Mothers with higher educational attainments were more likely to attain minimum meal frequency for their children

No education

0.71

0.59, 0.86

< 0.001

Multivariable multilevel logistic regression

Primary

0.74

0.64, 0.85

< 0.001

Secondary or higher^a

1.00

-

-

Paternal

Year, children’s age, birth order, birth interval, age-appropriate vaccination, maternal age, education, BMI, type of delivery assistance, antenatal care visits, father’s age, household wealth, geographical region, rank of  access to healthcare

Fathers with higher education attainment had less likelihood of attaining minimum meal frequency for their children

No education

0.92

0.78, 1.09

0.32

Multivariable multilevel logistic regression

Primary

1.03

0.89, 1.19

0.70

Secondary or higher^a

1.00

-

-

Minimum dietary diversity

Maternal

Year, children’s age, birth order, birth interval, age-appropriate vaccination, maternal age, BMI, type of delivery assistance, antenatal care visits, father’s age, paternal education, household wealth, geographical region, rank of access to healthcare

Mothers with higher educational attainments were more likely to achieve minimum dietary diversity for their children

No education

0.54

0.40, 0.73

< 0.001

Multivariable multilevel logistic regression

Primary

0.71

0.58, 0.86

< 0.01

Secondary or higher^a

1.00

-

-

Paternal

Year, children’s age, birth order, birth interval, age-appropriate vaccination, maternal age, education, BMI, type of delivery assistance, antenatal care visits, father’s age, household wealth, geographical region, rank of access to healthcare

Fathers with higher educational attainments were more likely to achieve minimum dietary diversity for their children

No education

0.76

0.59, 0.96

< 0.05

Multivariable multilevel logistic regression

Primary

0.87

0.73, 1.05

0.16

Secondary or higher^a

1.00

-

-

Minimum acceptable diet

Maternal

Year, children’s age, birth order, birth interval, age-appropriate vaccination, maternal age, BMI, type of delivery assistance, antenatal care visits, father’s age, paternal education, household wealth, geographical region, rank of access to healthcare

Mothers with higher educational attainments were more likely to achieve minimum acceptable diet for their children

No education

0.57

0.41, 0.78

< 0.01

Multivariable multilevel logistic regression

Primary

0.79

0.65, 0.97

< 0.05

Secondary or higher^a

1.00

-

-

Paternal

Year, children’s age, birth order, birth interval, age-appropriate vaccination, maternal age, education, BMI, type of delivery assistance, antenatal care visits, father’s age, household wealth, geographical region, rank of access to healthcare

Fathers with higher educational attainments were more likely to achieve minimum acceptable diet for their children

No education

0.74

0.57, 0.95

< 0.05

Multivariable multilevel logistic regression

Primary

0.87

0.71, 1.05

0.15

Secondary or higher^a

1.00

-

-

Nguyen et al. (2013) [55]

Dietary diversity (complementary feeding)

Maternal

Maternal dietary diversity, age, knowledge, self-perceived physical health, income, decision making in buying foods, food security, socioeconomic status, mother as household head, number of children, child’s sex

Maternal education was positively associated with achieving dietary diversity of children

No schooling^a

1.00^b

-

-

Multivariable linear regression

Primary

0.11^b

-0.08, 0.30

< 0.05

Secondary

0.20^b

-0.13, 0.52

< 0.05

College or higher

0.80^b

0.39, 1.22

< 0.001

Rahman et al. (2011) [56]

Early breastfeeding initiation

Maternal

Mother’s age at birth, residence, sex of child, birth interval, wealth autonomy, antenatal care, frequency of mass media exposure, wealth index, delivery assistance

Maternal education was positively associated with early initiation of breastfeeding

No education^a

1.00

-

-

Logistic regression

Primary

1.40

0.28, 1.86

< 0.05

Secondary

1.80

0.94, 2.98

< 0.05

Rahman et al. (2020) [33]

Exclusive breastfeeding

Maternal

Mother’s age at first birth, sex of child, religion, asset score, fathers’ education,  repeated pregnancy, religion, area, place of delivery, mode of delivery, history of 4 + ANC

Compared to mothers with secondary or higher education, mothers with no education and mothers with primary education were more likely to exclusively breastfeed their children

No education

1.02

0.63, 1.66

Not mentioned

Cox’s proportional hazard model

Primary

1.03

0.85, 1.24

Secondary or higher^a

1.00

-

Paternal

Mother’s age at first birth, sex of child, religion, asset score, mothers’ education,  repeated pregnancy, religion, area, place of delivery, mode of delivery, history of 4 + ANC

Exclusive breastfeeding increased for children whose father had primary level of education but decreased in case of uneducated fathers

No education

0.89

0.76, 1.05

Not mentioned

Cox’s proportional hazard model

Primary

1.11

0.91, 1.34

Secondary or higher^a

1.00

-

Rana et al. (2020) [57]

Exclusive breastfeeding

Maternal

Maternal age, religion, delivery place, occupation, type of family, monthly income

Mothers with higher levels of education were more likely to achieve exclusive breastfeed compared to the uneducated mothers

Illiterate^a

1.00

-

-

Binary logistic regression

Primary

1.19

0.41, 3.55

0.75

Secondary & higher

1.44

0.60, 3.45

0.42

Sakib et al. (2021) [58]

Early breastfeeding initiation

Maternal

Unadjusted

Compared to illiterate mothers, mothers with higher levels of education were less likely to initiate early breastfeeding for their children

Illiterate^a

-

-

-

Multinomial logistic regression

Primary

1.55

1.14, 2.11

< 0.01

Secondary

1.53

1.14, 2.06

< 0.01

Higher

1.50

1.08, 2.10

< 0.01

Sen et al. (2020) [38]

Early breastfeeding initiation

Parental

Survey time, maternal age at birth, gender of newborn, area of residence, birth order, wanted index child, place of delivery, mode of delivery, ANC visits, wealth index, exposure of media, division

Early initiation of breastfeeding was higher for parents with higher educational attainments

Both uneducated^a

1.00

-

-

Binary logistic regression

Any one educated

1.11

1.03, 1.19

< 0.01

Both educated

1.12

1.03, 1.22

< 0.001

Senarath et al. (2012) [59]

Not introduction of solid, semi-solid or soft food (6–8 months)

Maternal

Age of children, birth order, diarrhoea, mother’s age, mother working status, mother’s BMI, father’s occupation, reads newspaper, household wealth index, religion, antenatal clinic visits, geographical region,

Mothers with higher educational attainments were more likely to timely introduce solid, semi-solid & soft foods to their children compared to uneducated mothers

Secondary and above^a

1.00

-

-

Multiple logistic regression

Primary

2.31

1.07, 4.96

0.03

No education

2.14

1.08, 4.23

0.03

Inappropriate dietary

diversity (6–23 months)

Maternal

Child’s age, acute respiratory infection, mother working status, mother’s height, mother’s BMI, decision making at household(maternal), household wealth index, reads newspaper, watches television, listen to radio, antenatal clinic visits, number of postnatal visits by public health midwives, timing of postnatal checkup, type of residence, geographical region,

Mothers with higher educational attainments were more likely to practice appropriate dietary diversity for their children than uneducated mothers

Secondary and above^a

1.00

-

-

Multiple logistic regression

Primary

1.41

1.03, 1.94

0.03

No education

1.70

1.14, 2.54

0.01

Inadequate meal

frequency (6–23 months)

Maternal

Child’s age, mother working status, mother’s BMI, decision making at household(maternal), household wealth index, reads newspaper, listen to radio, watches television, exposure to media, antenatal clinic visits, antenatal home visits by public health midwives, type of residence, geographical region

Mothers with higher educational attainments were more likely to achieve adequate meal frequency for their children compared to uneducated mothers

Secondary and above^a

1.00

-

-

Multiple logistic regression

Primary

1.26

0.88, 1.82

0.21

No education

1.70

1.09, 2.67

0.02

Not meeting minimum acceptable diet (6–23 months)

Maternal

Child’s age, acute respiratory infection, mother working status, mother’s height, mother’s BMI, decision making at household(maternal), household wealth index, reads newspaper, listen to radio, exposure to media, antenatal clinic visits, antenatal home visits by public health midwives, type of residence, geographical region

Mothers with higher educational attainments were more likely to meet a minimum acceptable diet for their children compared to uneducated mothers

Secondary and above^a

1.00

-

-

Multiple logistic regression

Primary

1.36

1.01, 1.84

0.05

No education

1.73

1.20, 2.49

0.00

Shahjahan et al. (2012) [60]

Early breastfeeding initiation

Maternal

Mother’s age, birth order, wealth index, religion, sex of child, antenatal checkup

Early initiation of breastfeeding was higher among mothers with higher educational attainments

No education^a

1.00

-

Not mentioned

Logistic regression

Primary

1.20

1.00, 1.40

Secondary

1.60

1.20, 2.20

Sundaram et al. (2013) [43]

Pre-lacteal feeding or early neonatal feeding (ENF)

Maternal

Multiple logistic regression

Mother’s age, primigravidity, wealth quintile, perception of child size at birth, male child gender, behavior (normal suckling at birth), birth location, assistant present at birth, number of antenatal care visits, participation in BRAC microcredit program

Mothers who passed class nine were less likely to practice pre-lacteal feeding or early neonatal feeding compared to mothers who didn’t pass class.

Passed class nine

0.8

0.70, 0.90

< 0.05

Did not pass class nine^a

1.0

-

-

Maternal

Literate

1.0

0.90, 1.20

< 0.05

Illiterate^a

1.0

-

-

Tariqujjaman et al. (2022) [61]

Early initiation of breastfeeding

Maternal

Mothers’ age, age of children, sex of the children, type of place of residence, wealth index

Mothers with at least secondary education were less likely to practice early initiation of breastfeeding for their children compared to mothers with less than secondary education

< secondary^a

1.00

-

-

Generalized estimating equation model linked with log-binomial model

≥ secondary

0.84

0.72, 0.99

0.04

Exclusive breastfeeding

Maternal

Mothers’ age, age of children, sex of the children, type of place of residence, wealth index

Mothers who had at least secondary education were less likely to exclusively breastfeed their children compared to mothers with less than secondary level of education

< secondary^a

1.00

-

-

Generalized estimating equation model linked with log-binomial model

≥ secondary

0.89

0.65, 1.23

0.37

Continued breastfeeding at year 1

Maternal

Mothers’ age, age of children, sex of the children, type of place of residence, wealth index

Mothers who had at least secondary education were more likely to continue breastfeeding their children throughout year 1 compared to mothers with less than secondary education

< secondary^a

1.00

-

-

Generalized estimating equation model linked with log-binomial model

≥ secondary

1.04

0.99, 1.09

0.29

Introduction of solid semi-solid and soft foods

Maternal

Mothers’ age, age of children, sex of the children, type of place of residence, wealth index

Mothers who had at least secondary education were more likely to timely introduce solid, semi-solid & soft foods than their counterparts

< secondary^a

1.00

-

-

Generalized estimating equation model linked with log-binomial model

≥ secondary

1.04

0.90,1.21

0.90

Minimum dietary diversity

Maternal

Mothers’ age, age of children, sex of the children, type of place of residence, wealth index

Mothers who had at least secondary education were more likely to achieve minimum dietary diversity for their children than mothers with less than secondary education

< secondary^a

1.00

-

-

Generalized estimating equation model linked with log-binomial model

≥ secondary

1.85

1.51,2.27

< 0.001

Minimum meal frequency

Maternal

Mothers’ age, age of children, sex of the children, type of place of residence, wealth index

Mothers who had at least secondary education were more likely to achieve minimum meal frequency for their children than mothers with less than secondary education

< secondary^a

1.00

-

-

Generalized estimating equation model linked with log-binomial model

≥ secondary

1.02

0.97, 1.07

0.002

Minimum acceptable diet

Maternal

Mothers’ age, age of children, sex of the children, type of place of residence, wealth index

Mothers who had at least secondary education were more likely to achieve minimum acceptable diet for their children than mothers with less than secondary education

< secondary^a

1.00

-

-

Generalized estimating equation model linked with log-binomial model

≥ secondary

1.81

1.47–2.22

 < 0.001

Consumption of iron-rich or iron-fortified foods

Maternal

Mothers’ age, age of children, sex of the children, type of place of residence, wealth index

Mothers with equal or more than secondary education had higher odds of feeding iron rich/fortified foods compared to their counterparts

< secondary^a

1.00

-

-

Generalized estimating equation model linked with log-binomial model

≥ secondary

1.69

1.36, 2.10

 < 0.001