Table 1 Most reported factors impacting maternal mental health, early child development and parenting practices, categorized by domains

Behavioral

Disrupted sleep patterns and/or decreased sleep duration^a (Nicholas Carroll et al., 2020 [24, 25]; Cellini et al., 2021 [26]; Farewell et al., 2020 [60]; Kinser et al., 2021 [92]; Kracht et al., 2021 [95]; C. Li et al., 2021 [102]; Peltz et al., 2020 [152]; Romero-Gonzalez et al., 2020 [168, 169]; Shinomiya et al., 2021 [179]; Talbot et al., 2021 [188]; Xie et al., 2021 [206]; Xu et al., 2021 [207]; Zeng et al., 2020 [221]; Zhang et al., 2021 [222]; Çolak et al., 2021 [226])

Disrupted dietary habits^a

(Campagnaro et al., 2020 [22]; N. Carroll et al., 2020 [24, 25]; Farewell et al., 2020 [60]; Ferrante et al., 2021b [66]; Kinser et al., 2021 [92]; Mahmoud et al., 2021 [109]; Malkawi et al., 2020 [110]; Philippe et al., 2021 [156]; Thompson & Bardone-Cone, 2021 [194]; S. D. Wang et al., 2021 [202])

Excessive media exposure^a (N. Carroll et al., 2020 [24, 25]; Kinser et al., 2021 [92]; Lemieux et al., 2020 [101]; Yue et al., 2020 [217]; Zhang et al., 2021 [222]; Zhou et al., 2021 [224])

Regular physical activity² (Nicholas Carroll et al., 2020 [24, 25]; Farewell et al., 2020 [60]; Gildner et al., 2020 [74]; Kinser et al., 2021 [92]; Kracht et al., 2021 [95]; Limbers et al., 2020 [105])

Psychological/emotional resources—resilience, perceived self-efficacy, self-kindness, psychological flexibility^b (Boivin et al., 2020 [16]; Chasson et al., 2020 [29]; Daks et al., 2020 [44]; Farewell et al., 2020 [60]; Guo et al., 2021 [76]; Gur et al., 2020 [77]; Kinser et al., 2021 [92]; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020 [115, 116]; Mazza et al., 2020 [121]; Mo et al., 2021[125]; Nodoushan et al., 2020 [141]; Peltz et al., 2020 [152]; Taubman-Ben-Ari et al., 2020 [190, 191]; Valero-Moreno et al., 2021 [196]; Xue et al., 2021 [210, 211])

Disrupted sleep patterns and/or decreased sleep duration^b (Auðardóttir & Rúdólfsdóttir, 2020 [11]; N. Carroll et al., 2020 [24, 25]; Cellini et al., 2021 [21]; Dellagiulia et al., 2020 [48]; Horiuchi et al., 2020 [84]; Z. Liu et al., 2020 [108]; Nassar et al., 2021 [137]; Shinomiya et al., 2021 [179]; Zreik et al., 2020 [225])

Disrupted dietary habits^b (Ares et al., 2021 [9]; Auðardóttir & Rúdólfsdóttir, 2020 [11]; Nicholas Carroll et al., 2020 [24, 25]; Ferrante et al., 2021a [65]; Jansen et al., 2021 [87]; Mahmoud et al., 2021 [109]; Philippe et al., 2021 [156]; Sama et al., 2020 [174]; S. D. Wang et al., 2021 [202])

Excessive media exposure^b (Poulain et al., 2021 [158]; Yue et al., 2020 [217])

Increased screen time^b (N. Carroll et al., 2020 [24, 25]; de Sá et al., 2020 [46]; Horiuchi et al., 2020 [84]; W. Li et al., 2021 [103]; Ozturk Eyimaya & Yalçin Irmak, 2020 [148]; Sama et al., 2020 [174])

Regular physical activity^a (Nicholas Carroll et al., 2020 [24, 25]; de Sá et al., 2020 [46]; Horiuchi et al., 2020 [84]; W. Li et al., 2021 [103]; Moore et al., 2020; Sama et al., 2020 [127])

Loss of playing time outdoors^b (de Sá et al., 2020 [46]; Poulain et al., 2021 [158]; Sama et al., 2020 [174])

Psychological/emotional resources- emotional regulation^a (Spinelli, Lionetti, Setti, et al., 2020 [183, 184])

Changes in feeding practices^c (Farghaly et al., 2020 [61]; Jansen et al., 2021 [87]; Nguyen et al., 2021 [140]; Sánchez-Luna et al., 2021 [187]; Vazquez-Vazquez et al., 2021 [198]; S. D. Wang et al., 2021 [202])

Breastfeeding^c (DeYoung & Mangum, 2021 [49]; Ferrazzi et al., 2020 [67]; Litmanovitz et al., 2021 [106]; Oncel et al., 2020 [145]; Peng et al., 2020 [154]; Ronchi et al., 2021 [170]; Sabharwal et al., 2021 [172]; Zanardo et al., 2020 [220])

Maternal-newborn separation days^b (Ashini et al., 2021 [10]; Bender et al., 2020 [14]; Conti et al., 2021 [38]; Farhadi et al., 2021 [62]; Franchi et al., 2020 [71]; Litmanovitz et al., 2021 [106]; W. Liu et al., 2020 [107]; Scala et al., 2020 [175]; Wang et al., 2020 [201, 203])

Health and development

Reading and math skills^b

(Bao et al., 2020; Quenzer-Alfred et al., 2021 [163])

Immunization delays^b (Alsuhaibani & Alaqeel, 2020 [6])

Caregiving concerning children with neurodevelopmental disabilities and/or chronic illnesses^c (Ademhan Tural et al., 2020 [3]; Ayas et al., 2020 [12]; Bentenuto et al., 2021 [15]; Brisca et al., 2021 [17]; Chan & Fung, 2021 [27]; Chen et al., 2020 [30]; Di Riso et al., 2021 [52]; Grumi et al., 2020 [75]; Mirlashari et al., 2020 [123]; Neece et al., 2020 [139]; Odeh et al., 2020 [143]; Scala et al., 2020 [175])

Neonatal care^c (Congdon et al., 2021; Sabharwal et al., 2021 [36])

Immunization delays^a (Alsuhaibani & Alaqeel, 2020 [6])

Relational

Barriers to information on COVID-19 related health risks and/or inconsistent health related messages^b

(Ding et al., 2021 [54]; Farewell et al., 2020 [60]; Kahyaoglu Sut & Kucukkaya, 2020 [89])

Fear of infection and vertical transmission^b (Ahorsu et al., 2020 [4]; Chasson et al., 2020 [29]; Ding et al., 2021 [54]; Fan et al., 2021 [59]; Farewell et al., 2020 [60]; Gur et al., 2020 [77]; Kahyaoglu Sut & Kucukkaya, 2020 [89]; Mappa et al., 2020 [114]; Mo et al., 2021 [125]; Molgora & Accordini, 2020 [126]; Naurin et al., 2020 [138]; Rhodes et al., 2020 [165]; Thompson & Bardone-Cone, 2021 [194]; Yirmiya et al., 2021 [216])

Fear of adverse birth outcomes^b (Ahorsu et al., 2020 [4]; Fan et al., 2021 [59]; Gur et al., 2020 [77]; Kahyaoglu Sut & Kucukkaya, 2020 [89]; Kinser et al., 2021 [92]; Mappa et al., 2020 [114]; Molgora & Accordini, 2020 [126]; Naurin et al., 2020 [138]; Rhodes et al., 2020 [165]; Yirmiya et al., 2021 [216])

Family conflict and intimate partner violence^b (Chapman et al., 2021 [28]; Chmielewska et al., 2021 [32]; Daks et al., 2020 [44]; Guo et al., 2021 [76]; Hamadani et al., 2020 [80]; Muldoon et al., 2021 [134]; Naghizadeh et al., 2021 [136]; Sakalidis et al., 2021 [173]; Xie et al., 2021 [206])

Lack of partner and/or family support^b (Daks et al., 2020 [44]; Fan et al., 2021 [59]; Farewell et al., 2020 [60]; Guo et al., 2021 [76]; Kotlar et al., 2021 [93]; Manja et al., 2020 [113]; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020 [115, 116]; Mazza et al., 2020 [121]; Pınar Senkalfa et al., 2020 [157]; Xu, Wu, Levkoff, et al., 2020 [208, 209])

Unbalanced and increased caregiving and housework responsibilities during lockdown^b (Auðardóttir & Rúdólfsdóttir, 2020 [11]; N. Carroll et al., 2020 [24, 25]; Chmielewska et al., 2021 [32]; Costoya et al., 2021 [39]; Craig & Churchill, 2020 [40]; Del Boca et al., 2020 [47]; Ferns et al., 2021 [64]; Fosco et al., 2021 [70]; Gassman-Pines et al., 2020 [73]; Halley et al., 2021 [79]; Hjálmsdóttir & Bjarnadóttir, 2020 [83]; Malkawi et al., 2020 [110]; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020 [115, 116]; Miller et al., 2020 [122]; Mousavi, 2020 [130]; Pınar Senkalfa et al., 2020 [157]; Shafer et al., 2020 [177]; Shockley et al., 2020 [180]; S. D. Wang et al., 2021 [202]; Xue & McMunn, 2021 [210, 211]; Yamamura & Tsustsui, 2021 [212]; Yerkes et al., 2020 [214]; Yildirim & Eslen-Ziya, 2020 [215]; Zamarro & Prados, 2021 [219])

Number of children in household^b (Ding et al., 2021 [54]; Guo et al., 2021 [76]; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020 [115, 116]; Pınar Senkalfa et al., 2020 [157]; Yirmiya et al., 2021 [216])

Caregiving responsibilities concerning children with neurodevelopmental disorders and/or chronic illnesses^c (Chen et al., 2020 [30]; Faccioli et al., 2021 [58]; Grumi et al., 2020 [75]; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020 [115, 116]; Neece et al., 2020 [139]; Pınar Senkalfa et al., 2020 [157]; Ren et al., 2020; Rogers et al., 2021 [167])

Household children's age^a (Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020 [115, 116]; Mazza et al., 2020 [121]; Pınar Senkalfa et al., 2020 [157])

Family cohesion^a (Daks et al., 2020 [44]; Fosco et al., 2021 [70]; Xie et al., 2021 [206])

Caregivers’ mental health: elevated stress, depressive and/or anxiety symptoms^b (Calvano et al., 2021 [20]; Cheng et al., 2021 [30]; DeYoung & Mangum, 2021 [49]; Gadermann et al., 2021 [72]; Lee et al., 2020 [98]; Patrick et al., 2020 [151]; Russell et al., 2020 [171]; Spinelli, Lionetti, Pastore, et al., 2020 [183, 184])

Secondary caregiver mental health grandparents^c (Wu et al., 2021[205]; Xu, Wu, Jedwab, et al., 2020 [208, 209]; Xu, Wu, Levkoff, et al., 2020 [208, 209])

Family conflict / abuse / harsh parenting^a (Brown et al., 2020 [18, 19]; Calvano et al., 2021 [20]; Chung et al., 2020 [34]; Connell & Strambler, 2021 [37]; Fosco et al., 2021 [70]; Kovler et al., 2020 [94]; Lawson et al., 2020 [96]; Lee et al., 2021 [98]; W. Li et al., 2021 [103]; Martins-Filho et al., 2020 [118]; Waller et al., 2021 [200])

Frequent parents-child dialogues about COVID-19^a (Choi et al., 2021 [33]; Cohodes et al., 2021 [35]; Tang et al., 2020 [189])

Decreased social interaction/ isolation^b (Farghaly et al., 2020 [61]; Lee et al., 2020 [98]; Z. Liu et al., 2020 [108]; Moore et al., 2020 [127]; Ozturk Eyimaya & Yalçin Irmak, 2020 [148]; Sama et al., 2020 [174])

Maternal-infant attachment^c (Farhadi et al., 2021 [62]; Fernandes et al., 2021 [63]; Liang et al., 2021 [104]; Mayopoulos et al., 2021 [120]; Oskovi-Kaplan et al., 2020 [146]; Peng et al., 2021 [153]; Steinberg et al., 2021 [185]; Suzuki, 2020 [186]; Taubman-Ben-Ari & Ben-Yaakov, 2020 [190, 191])

Family dynamics / parenting styles^c (Altena et al., 2020 [7]; Choi et al., 2021 [33]; Cohodes et al., 2021 [35]; Daks et al., 2020 [44]; Fernandes et al., 2021 [63]; Forbes et al., 2021 [69]; Fosco et al., 2021 [70]; Mahmoud et al., 2021 [109]; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Di Giandomenico, et al., 2020 [115, 116]; Romero et al., 2020 [168, 169]; Waller et al., 2021 [200]; Xu, Wu, Jedwab, et al., 2020 [208, 209]; Xu, Wu, Levkoff, et al., 2020 [208, 209])

Family conflict / abuse / harsh parenting^a (Brown et al., 2020 [18, 19]; Calvano et al., 2021 [20]; Chung et al., 2020 [34]; Connell & Strambler, 2021 [37]; Fosco et al., 2021 [70]; Kovler et al., 2020 [94]; Lawson et al., 2020 [96]; Lee et al., 2021 [98]; W. Li et al., 2021 [103]; Martins-Filho et al., 2020 [118]; Waller et al., 2021 [200]; Xu, Wu, Jedwab, et al., 2020 [208, 209])

Frequent parents-child dialogues about COVID-19^a (Choi et al., 2021 [33]; Cohodes et al., 2021 [35]; Tang et al., 2020 [189])

Maternal unbalanced and increased caregiving and housework responsibilities during lockdown^b (Auðardóttir & Rúdólfsdóttir, 2020 [11]; Nicholas Carroll et al., 2020 [24, 25]; Chmielewska et al., 2021 [32]; Costoya et al., 2021 [39]; Craig & Churchill, 2020 [40]; Del Boca et al., 2020 [47]; Ferns et al., 2021 [64]; Fosco et al., 2021 [70]; Gassman-Pines et al., 2020 [73]; Halley et al., 2021 [79]; Hjálmsdóttir & Bjarnadóttir, 2020 [83]; Malkawi et al., 2020 [110]; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020 [115, 116]; Miller et al., 2020 [122]; Mousavi, 2020 [130]; Pınar Senkalfa et al., 2020 [157]; Shafer et al., 2020 [177]; Shockley et al., 2020 [180]; S. D. Wang et al., 2021 [202]; Xue & McMunn, 2021 [210, 211]; Yamamura & Tsustsui, 2021 [212]; Yerkes et al., 2020 [214]; Yildirim & Eslen-Ziya, 2020 [215]; Zamarro & Prados, 2021 [219])

Demographic

Gender inequality^b (Costoya et al., 2021 [39]; Craig & Churchill, 2020 [40]; Del Boca et al., 2020 [47]; Ferns et al., 2021 [64]; Hjálmsdóttir & Bjarnadóttir, 2020 [83]; Marshall et al., 2020 [117]; Miller et al., 2020 [122]; Mousavi, 2020 [130]; Shafer et al., 2020 [177]; Shockley et al., 2020 [180]; Xue & McMunn, 2021 [210, 211]; Yamamura & Tsustsui, 2021 [212]; Yerkes et al., 2020 [214]; Yildirim & Eslen-Ziya, 2020 [215])

Ethnicity- Black or Latinx^b (Gildner et al., 2020 [74]; Gur et al., 2020 [77]; Quandt et al., 2020 [162])

Ethnicity^c (Quandt et al., 2020 [162])

Economic

Economic recession^b

(Ding et al., 2021 [54]; Silverman et al., 2020 [182]; Spinelli, Lionetti, Setti, et al., 2020 [183, 184])

Financial hardship and/or strain^b

(N. Carroll et al., 2020 [24, 25]; Chung et al., 2020 [34]; Daulay, 2021 [45]; Dhiman et al., 2020 [50]; Gassman-Pines et al., 2020 [73]; Gildner et al., 2020 [74]; Halley et al., 2021 [79]; Hamadani et al., 2020 [80]; Khoury et al., 2021 [91]; Kinser et al., 2021 [92]; Mulale et al., 2021 [133]; Perzow et al., 2021; Sakalidis et al., 2021 [173]; Silverman et al., 2020 [182]; Thayer & Gildner, 2020 [193]; S. D. Wang et al., 2021 [202]; Wimberly et al., 2021 [204])

Employment insecurity^b (Gassman-Pines et al., 2020 [73]; Guo et al., 2021 [76]; Gur et al., 2020 [77]; Halley et al., 2021 [79]; Kinser et al., 2021 [92]; Moyer et al., 2020 [131]; Quandt et al., 2020 [162]; Valero-Moreno et al., 2021 [196]; Vasilevski et al., 2021 [197]; S. D. Wang et al., 2021 [202]; Wu et al., 2021 [205])

Food insecurity^b (N. Carroll et al., 2020 [24, 25]; Dumbre et al., 2020 [56]; Ferrante et al., 2021a [65]; Hamadani et al., 2020 [80]; Moyer et al., 2020 [131]; Patrick et al., 2020 [151]; Rocha et al., 2021 [166])

Income inequality^b (W. Li et al., 2021 [103])

Financial hardship and/or strain^b

(Cheng et al., 2021 [30]; Chung et al., 2020 [34]; Dumbre et al., 2020 [56]; Fisher et al., 2021 [68]; Gassman-Pines et al., 2020 [73]; Lawson et al., 2020 [96]; Quandt et al., 2020 [162])

Employment insecurity^b (Lawson et al., 2020 [96]; Quandt et al., 2020 [162])

Food insecurity^b (Nicholas Carroll et al., 2020 [24, 25]; Nguyen et al., 2021 [140]; Patrick et al., 2020 [151]; Rocha et al., 2021 [166])

Social and Cultural

Isolation / social distancing measures/ lockdown^b (Achterberg et al., 2021 [2]; Bender et al., 2020 [14]; Brown & Shenker, 2020 [18, 19]; Chan & Fung, 2021 [27]; Chapman et al., 2021 [28]; Dickerson et al., 2020 [53]; El-Osta et al., 2021 [57]; Farghaly et al., 2020 [61]; Hailemariam et al., 2021 [78]; Khoury et al., 2021 [91]; Mangiavacchi et al., 2021 [111]; Mizrak Sahin & Kabakci, 2020 [124]; Nomura et al., 2021 [142]; Overbeck et al., 2020 [147]; Protudjer et al., 2020 [161]; Ren et al., 2020 [30, 164]; Talbot et al., 2021 [188]; TG et al., 2021 [192]; Q. Wang et al., 2021 [125, 201])

Access barriers to health services^b

(Cameron et al., 2020; Hailemariam et al., 2021 [78]; Masters et al., 2021 [119]; Moyer et al., 2020 [131]; TG et al., 2021 [192]; Vasilevski et al., 2021 [197]; Q. Wang et al., 2021 [125, 201])

Lack of social support^b (Chasson et al., 2020 [29]; Fan et al., 2021 [59]; Farewell et al., 2020 [60]; Gur et al., 2020 [77]; Kassaw & Pandey, 2020 [90]; Lebel et al., 2020 [97]; Marchetti, Fontanesi, Mazza, et al., 2020 [115, 116]; Rhodes et al., 2020 [165]; Taubman-Ben-Ari et al., 2020 [190, 191]; Vazquez-Vazquez et al., 2021 [198]; Zhang & Ma, 2020 [223])

Maternal education level^c (Aksoy Derya et al., 2020 [5]; Daulay, 2021 [45]; Gildner et al., 2020 [74]; Guo et al., 2021 [76]; Kassaw & Pandey, 2020 [90]; Lee et al., 2020 [98]; W. Li et al., 2021 [103]; Mangolian Shahrbabaki et al., 2021 [112]; Quandt et al., 2020 [162]; Scarpellini et al., 2021 [176])

Social distancing measures/ Lockdown^b (Auðardóttir & Rúdólfsdóttir, 2020 [11]; Dumbre et al., 2020 [56]; Farghaly et al., 2020 [61]; Lee et al., 2020 [98]; Z. Liu et al., 2020 [108]; Mangiavacchi et al., 2021 [111]; Moore et al., 2020 [127]; Neece et al., 2020 [139]; Ozturk Eyimaya & Yalçin Irmak, 2020 [148]; Quandt et al., 2020 [162]; Sama et al., 2020 [174]; Shah et al., 2021 [178])

Disrupted early childhood education- school and daycare centers closures^b (Bao et al., 2020; Cui et al., 2021 [41]; Lee et al., 2020 [98]; Z. Liu et al., 2020 [108]; Moore et al., 2020 [127]; Moscardino et al., 2021 [129]; Ozturk Eyimaya & Yalçin Irmak, 2020 [148]; Quenzer-Alfred et al., 2021 [163]; Sama et al., 2020 [174]; Scarpellini et al., 2021 [176])

Access barriers to health services^b (Ayas et al., 2020 [12]; Brisca et al., 2021 [17]; Cui et al., 2020 [42]; Quandt et al., 2020 [162])

Healthcare and Childcare Services

Impact of telehealth/ virtual healthcare^a (Aksoy Derya et al., 2020 [5]; Farhadi et al., 2021 [62]; Naeem et al., 2020 [135])

Health insurance^a (Patrick et al., 2020 [151])

Daycare services^a (Ayas et al., 2020 [12]; Cui et al., 2020 [42]; Quenzer-Alfred et al., 2021 [163])