Table 1 Characteristics of the study population by regions in India, 2019–21 National Family and Health Survey (N = 173,970)
Characteristic | North (n = 23,646) | South (n = 29,541) | East (n = 44,859) | West (n = 22,473) | Central (n = 46,396) | Northeastern (n = 7055) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | |
Community Level Factor | ||||||
 Type of place of residence | ||||||
  Urban | 7853 (33.2) | 11,891 (40.3) | 8221 (18.3) | 9675 (43.1) | 10,329 (22.3) | 1083 (15.3) |
  Rural | 15,793 (66.8) | 17,650 (59.8) | 36,638 (81.7) | 12,798 (57.0) | 36,068 (77.7) | 5972 (84.7) |
Predisposing factors | ||||||
 Socio-demographic factors | ||||||
  Maternal age at child's birth (Years) | ||||||
    < 20 | 1423 (6.0) | 2774 (9.4) | 7451 (16.6) | 2144 (9.5) | 2767 (6.0) | 1024 (14.5) |
   20–29 | 18,011 (76.2) | 21,893 (74.1) | 31,383 (70.0) | 16,704 (74.3) | 35,387 (76.3) | 4449 (63.1) |
   30–39 | 4062 (17.2) | 4728 (16.0) | 5674 (12.7) | 3504 (15.6) | 7793 (16.8) | 1482 (21.0) |
   40 +  | 150 (0.6) | 147 (0.5) | 351 (0.8) | 121 (0.5) | 449 (1.0) | 100 (1.4) |
  Place of delivery | ||||||
   Home | 1334 (5.6) | 471 (1.6) | 7120 (15.9) | 1050 (4.7) | 6141 (13.2) | 1180 (16.7) |
   Health  facility | 22,312 (94.4) | 29,070 (98.4) | 37,739 (84.1) | 21,422 (95.3) | 40,255 (86.8) | 5875 (83.3) |
  Wealth Index | ||||||
   Rich | 13,938 (58.9) | 15,939 (54.0) | 6807 (15.2) | 11,769 (52.4) | 14,325 (30.9) | 894 (12.7) |
   Middle | 4380 (18.5) | 8118 (27.5) | 7180 (16.0) | 4849 (21.6) | 8362 (18.0) | 1155 (16.4) |
   Poor | 5328 (22.5) | 5484 (18.6) | 30,871 (68.8) | 5855 (26.1) | 23,709 (51.1) | 5006 (71.0) |
  Employment | ||||||
   Did not work | 3111 (84.2) | 3581 (78.3) | 6013 (87.3) | 2533 (77.5) | 5907 (84.6) | 868 (81.1) |
   Worked | 584 (15.8) | 994 (21.7) | 876 (12.7) | 736 (22.5) | 1078 (15.4) | 203 (19.0) |
  Mother's Education | ||||||
   Secondary | 16,013 (67.7) | 25,558 (86.5) | 26,525 (59.1) | 17,921 (79.7) | 28,697 (61.8) | 4932 (69.9) |
   Primary | 3075 (13.0) | 1775 (6.0) | 6094 (13.6) | 2190 (9.7) | 6146 (13.2) | 1104 (15.7) |
   No Education | 4558 (19.3) | 2208 (7.5) | 12,240 (27.3) | 2362 (10.5) | 11,553 (24.9) | 1018 (14.4) |
  Mother's Marital Status | ||||||
   Currently married | 23,379 (99.0) | 29,156 (98.7) | 44,364 (99.0) | 22,141 (98.7) | 45,886 (99.0) | 6894 (97.9) |
   Formerly married | 246 (1.0) | 374 (1.3) | 455 (1.0) | 300 (1.3) | 459 (1.0) | 151 (2.1) |
  Combined Birth Rank and Birth Interval | ||||||
   2nd/3rd > 2 years | 10,279 (43.5) | 13,107 (44.4) | 19,064 (42.5) | 10,011 (44.6) | 20,212 (43.6) | 3272 (46.4) |
   1st child | 8398 (35.5) | 10,877 (36.8) | 15,527 (34.6) | 8497 (37.8) | 13,618 (29.4) | 2818 (39.9) |
   2nd/3rd <  = 2 years | 3880 (16.4) | 5259 (17.8) | 6978 (15.6) | 3269 (14.5) | 8540 (18.4) | 523 (7.4) |
   4th birth > 2 years | 752 (3.2) | 201 (0.7) | 2247 (5.0) | 455 (2.0) | 2899 (6.2) | 349 (4.9) |
   4th birth <  = 2 years | 337 (1.4) | 97 (0.3) | 1043 (2.3) | 241 (1.1) | 1127 (2.4) | 93 (1.3) |
 Health knowledge | ||||||
  Frequency of reading magazine or newspaper | ||||||
   At least once a week | 2649 (11.2) | 7160 (24.2) | 2695 (6.0) | 3768 (16.8) | 3652 (7.9) | 446 (6.3) |
   Less than once a week | 4709 (19.9) | 6929 (23.5) | 6995 (15.6) | 5345 (23.8) | 7426 (16.0) | 1093 (15.5) |
   Never | 16,288 (68.9) | 15,451 (52.3) | 35,169 (78.4) | 13,360 (59.5) | 35,318 (76.1) | 5516 (78.2) |
  Frequency of listening radio | ||||||
   At least once a week | 884 (3.7) | 1888 (6.4) | 680 (1.5) | 841 (3.7) | 1438 (3.1) | 195 (2.8) |
   Less than once a week | 2396 (10.1) | 2889 (9.8) | 2674 (5.9) | 2099 (9.3) | 4324 (9.3) | 658 (9.3) |
   Never | 20,366 (86.1) | 24,764 (83.8) | 41,505 (92.5) | 19,533 (86.9) | 40,635 (87.6) | 6202 (87.9) |
  Frequency of watching Television | ||||||
   At least once a week | 12,978 (54.9) | 22,850 (77.4) | 16,181 (36.1) | 12,788 (56.9) | 18,895 (40.7) | 2512 (35.6) |
   Less than once a week | 5736 (24.3) | 3970 (13.4) | 7869 (17.5) | 4939 (22.0) | 10,293 (22.2) | 1819 (25.8) |
   Never | 4933 (20.9) | 2722 (9.2) | 20,809 (46.4) | 4746 (21.1) | 17,208 (37.1) | 2724 (38.6) |
  Told about delivery complications | ||||||
   Any complications | 17,796 (75.3) | 22,159 (75.0) | 29,107 (64.9) | 17,024 (75.8) | 34,662 (74.7) | 5109 (72.4) |
   None | 5851 (24.7) | 7382 (25.0) | 15,752 (35.1) | 5449 (24.3) | 11,734 (25.3) | 1946 (27.6) |
  Length of discharge after delivery | ||||||
   discharge | 733 (3.1) | 537 (1.8) | 1391 (3.1) | 331 (1.5) | 1523 (3.3) | 138 (2.0) |
   None | 22,913 (96.9) | 29,004 (98.2) | 43,468 (96.9) | 22,141 (98.5) | 44,873 (96.7) | 6917 (98.0) |
 Enabling factors | ||||||
  Getting medical help for self: Getting permission to go | ||||||
   No problem | 16,103 (68.1) | 20,530 (69.5) | 26,832 (59.8) | 12,971 (57.7) | 25,760 (55.5) | 4727 (67.0) |
   Big problem | 2846 (12.0) | 2942 (10.0) | 8424 (18.8) | 3153 (14.0) | 8947 (19.3) | 897 (12.7) |
   Not a big problem | 4698 (19.9) | 6069 (20.5) | 9603 (21.4) | 6349 (28.3) | 11,690 (25.2) | 1431 (20.3) |
  Getting medical help for self: Getting money needed for treatment | ||||||
   No problem | 13,887 (58.7) | 16,632 (56.3) | 15,772 (35.2) | 12,174 (54.2) | 21,661 (46.7) | 1908 (27.0) |
   Big problem | 3348 (14.2) | 4769 (16.2) | 15,242 (34.0) | 3160 (14.1) | 9754 (21.0) | 2618 (37.1) |
   Not a big problem | 6411 (27.1) | 8140 (27.6) | 13,845 (30.9) | 7138 (31.8) | 14,982 (32.3) | 2529 (35.9) |
  Distance to health facilities | ||||||
   No problem | 11,435 (48.4) | 14,414 (48.8) | 14,996 (33.4) | 10,225 (45.5) | 18,137 (39.1) | 2107 (29.9) |
   Not a big problem | 7390 (31.3) | 9424 (31.9) | 15,774 (35.2) | 7618 (33.9) | 17,348 (37.4) | 2780 (39.4) |
   Big problem | 4821 (20.4) | 5703 (19.3) | 14,089 (31.4) | 4630 (20.6) | 10,912 (23.5) | 2168 (30.7) |
  Getting medical health for self not wanting to go alone | ||||||
   No problem | 12,774 (54) | 17,647 (59.7) | 19,163 (42.7) | 11,396 (50.7) | 20,777 (44.8) | 3168 (44.9) |
   Big problem | 3761 (15.9) | 3532 (12.0) | 11,012 (24.6) | 3572 (15.9) | 8803 (19.0) | 1177 (16.7) |
   Not a big problem | 7111 (30.1) | 8362 (28.3) | 14,685 (32.7) | 7505 (33.4) | 16,816 (36.2) | 2710 (38.4) |
  Timing of postnatal check-up | ||||||
   0–2 days | 1852 (7.8) | 2664 (9.0) | 3389 (7.6) | 1152 (5.1) | 4812 (10.4) | 260 (3.7) |
   3–41 days | 8981 (38.0) | 11,654 (39.5) | 16,922 (37.7) | 7913 (35.2) | 17,793 (38.4) | 1963 (27.8) |
   Don’t know | 12,814 (54.2) | 15,222 (51.5) | 24,548 (54.7) | 13,409 (59.7) | 23,791 (51.3) | 4831 (68.5) |
 Health Services | ||||||
  Antenatal care service attendant | ||||||
   Health practitioner | 20,693 (92.8) | 28,405 (97.7) | 34,241 (86.1) | 20,289 (94.2) | 37,359 (91.9) | 5967 (91.6) |
   No one | 1285 (5.8) | 570 (2.0) | 4850 (12.2) | 1101 (5.1) | 2371 (5.8) | 482 (7.4) |
   Traditional | 325 (1.5) | 102 (0.4) | 682 (1.7) | 139 (0.6) | 921 (2.3) | 67 (1.0) |
  Place received antenatal care services | ||||||
   Government | 7835 (48.0) | 11,061 (42.9) | 6016 (24.0) | 5161 (28.8) | 7944 (30.5) | 2649 (59.7) |
   Private | 5870 (36.0) | 10,582 (41.0) | 10,625 (42.3) | 6526 (36.4) | 9777 (37.5) | 735 (16.6) |
   Home | 2609 (16.0) | 4150 (16.1) | 8455 (33.7) | 6266 (34.9) | 8337 (32.0) | 1051 (23.7) |
 Need factors | ||||||
  Contraceptive use | ||||||
   Yes | 15,408 (65.2) | 16,130 (54.6) | 27,126 (60.5) | 12,104 (53.9) | 27,869 (60.1) | 4293 (60.9) |
   No | 8238 (34.8) | 13,411 (45.4) | 17,733 (39.5) | 10,368 (46.1) | 18,527 (39.9) | 2762 (39.1) |
  Intention to become pregnant | ||||||
   Then | 21,587 (91.3) | 28,268 (95.7) | 39,838 (88.8) | 21,279 (94.7) | 42,562 (91.7) | 6546 (92.8) |
   Later | 1098 (4.6) | 703 (2.4) | 2623 (5.8) | 594 (2.6) | 1785 (3.8) | 233 (3.3) |
   No more | 961 (4.1) | 570 (1.9) | 2398 (5.3) | 600 (2.7) | 2050 (4.4) | 276 (3.9) |
 Autonomy variables | ||||||
  Power over earnings | ||||||
   By husband | 21,055 (89.0) | 26,383 (89.3) | 39,721 (88.6) | 20,121 (89.5) | 41,361 (89.2) | 6238 (88.4) |
   Woman alone | 2591 (11.0) | 3158 (10.7) | 5138 (11.5) | 2352 (10.5) | 5035 (10.9) | 817 (11.6) |
  Power over household decision making | ||||||
   By husband | 20,502 (86.7) | 25,689 (87.0) | 38,974 (86.9) | 20,121 (89.5) | 40,501 (87.3) | 6097 (86.4) |
   Woman alone | 3144 (13.3) | 3852 (13.0) | 5885 (13.1) | 2352 (10.5) | 5895 (12.7) | 958 (13.6) |
  Wife beaten for refusing sex | ||||||
   Yes | 284 (1.2) | 720 (2.4) | 738 (1.6) | 334 (1.5) | 754 (1.6) | 99 (1.4) |
   No | 23,363 (98.8) | 28,820 (97.6) | 44,121 (98.4) | 22,139 (98.5) | 45,642 (98.4) | 6956 (98.6) |
  Attitudes to domestic violence | ||||||
   Yes | 828 (3.5) | 3108 (10.5) | 2109 (4.7) | 1031 (4.6) | 2334 (5.0) | 294 (4.2) |
   No | 22,818 (96.5) | 26,433 (89.5) | 42,751 (95.3) | 21,442 (95.4) | 44,062 (95.0) | 6761 (95.8) |