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Table 4 Hygiene behavior and hygiene condition before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

From: Water, sanitation, hygiene practices, health and nutritional status among children before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: longitudinal evidence from remote areas of Dailekh and Achham districts in Nepal

Variables

[N (%)]

P-value*

Dailekh [n (%)]

P-value*

Achham [n (%)]

P-value*

Change from baseline to endline

Beta/OR (95% CI)

P-value

Baseline [n (%)]

Endline [n (%)]

Baseline [n (%)]

Endline [n (%)]

Baseline [n (%)]

Endline [n (%)]

Cleans container for drinking water transport

707 (98.9)

464 (95.5)

0.86

355 (99.7)

238 (97.4)

0.03

352 (98.1)

226 (93.4)

0.03

n/a

n/a

Cleans container for drinking water transporta

           

 Everyday

3 (0.4)

2 (0.4)

0.68

2 (0.6)

2 (0.8)

0.08

1 (0.3)

0 (0.0)

0.04

0.13 (0.05–0.32)

0.16

 Every second day

8 (1.1)

66 (14.2)

4 (1.1)

39 (16.4)

4 (1.1)

27 (11.9)

 At least once per week

103 (14.6)

95 (20.5)

40 (11.3)

52 (21.8)

63 (17.9)

43 (19.0)

 Less than once per week

593 (83.9)

301 (64.9)

309 (87.0)

145 (60.9)

284 (80.7)

156 (69.0)

Methods of cleaning the container used for transport of water a

           

I use water or water and sand

167 (23.6)

280 (60.3)

0.86

37 (10.4)

131 (55.0)

0.01

130 (36.9)

149 (65.9)

0.01

2.09 (-0.01-4.21)

0.05

I use chlorine to disinfect it almost always

0 (0.0)

1 (0.2)

0 (0.0)

1 (0.4)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

I use chlorine to disinfect it sometime

0 (0.0)

1 (0.2)

0 (0.0)

1(0.4)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

I wash it almost always with soap or ash

204 (28.8)

132 (28.4)

108 (30.4)

70 (29.4)

96 (27.3)

62 (27.4)

I wash it sometimes with soap or ash

336 (47.5)

50 (10.8)

210 (59.2)

35 (14.7)

126 (35.8)

15 (6.6)

Daily frequency of handwashing with soap or asha

           

 1–4 times

574 (80.3)

26 (5.3)

0.01

278 (78.1)

10 (4.1)

0.17

296 (82.5)

16 (6.6)

0.24

1.92 (1.71–2.14)

0.01

 5–10 times

140 (19.6)

458 (94.2)

78 (21.9)

233 (95.5)

62 (17.3)

225 (93.0)

 11–15 times

1 (0.1)

2 (0.4)

0 (0.0)

1 (0.4)

1 (0.3)

1 (0.4)

 ≥ 16 times

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

Handwashingb

           

 After going to toilet

705 (98.6)

361 (74.3)

0.77

354 (99.4)

194 (79.5)

0.06

351 (97.8)

167 (69.0)

0.008

0.64 (0.02–16.37)

0.79

 Before eating

482 (67.4)

482 (67.4)

0.38

187 (52.1)

194 (79.5)

0.01

295 (82.9)

183 (75.6)

0.31

0.08 (0.05–0.12)

0.01

 After cleaning baby’s bottom

440 (61.5)

110 (22.6)

0.09

236 (66.3)

58 (23.8)

0.009

204 (56.8)

52 (21.5)

0.55

0.11 (0.01–1.09)

0.06

 When they look dirty

385 (53.9)

237 (48.8)

0.25

172 (48.3)

120 (49.2)

0.003

213 (59.3)

117 (48.4)

0.85

1.62 (0.09–28.74)

0.74

 Before cooking

256 (35.8)

164 (33.7)

0.98

142 (39.9)

104 (42.6)

0.02

114 (31.7)

60 (24.8)

0.01

0.29 (0.02–3.58)

0.34

 There are no special occasions

1 (0.1)

1 (0.2)

n/a

0 (0.0)

1 (0.4)

0.32

1 (0.3)

0 (0.0)

0.32

n/a

n/a

 Never

2 (0.3)

0 (0.0)

n/a

2 (0.6)

0 (0.0)

n/a

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

n/a

n/a

n/a

Defecationa

           

 Using bushes

4 (0.6)

7 (1.4)

0.21

3 (0.8)

2 (0.8)

0.54

1 (0.3)

1 (0.4)

0.24

1.72 (0.89–2.56)

0.01

  A shared simple pit latrine

56 (7.8)

17 (3.5)

12 (3.4)

9 (3.7)

44 (12.3)

31 (12.8)

 A shared water sealed toilet

73 (10.2)

42 (8.6)

61 (17.1)

50 (20.5)

12 (3.3)

2 (0.8)

Households own simple pit latrine

528 (73.8)

361 (74.3)

263 (73.9)

171 (70.1)

265 (73.8)

184 (76.0)

Households own water sealed toilet

54 (7.6)

59 (12.1)

17 (4.8)

12 (4.9)

37 (10.3)

24 (9.9)

Hygiene condition of latrinea,c

           

 Low hygiene category

279 (42.3)

162 (33.3)

0.14

17 (7.0)

91 (37.3)

0.01

71 (29.3)

71 (29.3)

0

0.94 (0.86–1.02)

0.01

 Intermediate hygiene category

240 (36.4)

236 (48.6)

136 (55.7)

136 (55.7)

100 (41.3)

100(41.3)

 High hygiene category

140 (21.2)

88 (18.1)

91 (37.3)

17 (7.0)

71 (29.3)

71 (29.3)

Hygiene condition of the handwashing facilitiesa,d

           

 Low hygiene category

54 (40.6)

154 (31.7)

0.02

43 (43.9)

74 (30.3)

0.04

11 (31.4)

80 (33.1)

0.46

-0.06 (-1.53-1.42)

0.94

 Intermediate hygiene category

36 (27.1)

106 (21.8)

29 (29.6)

67 (27.5)

7 (20.0)

39 (16.1)

 High hygiene category

43 (32.3)

226 (46.5)

26 (26.5)

103 (42.2)

17 (48.6)

123 (50.8)

Hygiene condition of kitchena,e

           

 Low hygiene category

256 (35.8)

93 (19.1)

0.01

151 (42.4)

39 (16.0)

0.01

105 (29.2)

54 (22.3)

0.14

0.89 (-0.36-2.14)

0.16

 Intermediate hygiene category

253 (35.4)

216 (44.4)

130 (36.5)

112 (45.9)

123 (34.3)

104 (43.0)

 High hygiene category

206 (28.8)

177 (36.4)

75 (21.1)

93 (38.1)

131 (36.5)

84 (34.7)

Personal hygiene of participating child and their caregiversa,f

           

 Low hygiene category

273 (38.2)

147 (30.2)

0.01

186 (52.2)

49 (20.1)

0.01

87 (24.2)

98 (40.5)

0.01

0.07 (-0.08-0.22)

0.35

 Intermediate hygiene category

235 (32.9)

172 (35.4)

111 (31.2)

111 (45.5)

124 (34.5)

61 (25.2)

 High hygiene category

207 (28.9)

167 (34.4)

59 (16.6)

84 (34.4)

148 (41.2)

83 (34.3)

 Information received on water, sanitation and hygieneb

37 (5.2)

307 (63.2)

0.28

19 (5.3)

134 (54.9)

0.84

18 (5.0)

173 (71.5)

0.01

0.03 (0.005–1.93)

0.10

  1. a Changes were assessed by mixed linear models for the respective end-line outcome, including the random intercepts of the study wards, while also adjusting for the outcomes observed at the baseline, the district, sex and age of the child, and education level and socioeconomic status of the caregivers. The effect estimates can be interpreted as adjusted difference in the mean change of the respective variable between the baseline and endline.
  2. b Changes in the binary outcomes were calculated using mixed logistic regression models, including the random intercepts for the study wards while also adjusting for the outcomes observed at baseline, the district, sex, and age of the child, and education level and socio-economic status of caregivers.
  3. c A new variable for the observed hygiene condition of the latrine was created using factor analysis with four conceptually similar categorical variables: (i) is the toilet clean; (ii) are these materials available (sandals, drum with water, brush, none of these). The condition of toilet was then categorized into three categories with a low, intermediate and high hygiene category.
  4. d A new variable for the observed hygiene condition of the handwashing facility was created using factor analysis with four conceptually similar categorical variables: (i) are handwashing facilities in good condition; (ii) are handwashing facilities clean; (iii) is soap available; (iv) is water available. The condition of the handwashing facility was then categorised into three categories with a low, intermediate and high hygiene category.
  5. e A new variable for the observed hygiene of the kitchen hygiene condition was created using factor analysis with for a conceptually similar categorical variables: (i) are clean dishes kept high; (ii) is the entirety of food covered; (iii) is there a rack to dry your utensils and dishes after washing and (iv) is there a significant number of flies in the kitchen (> 10). The kitchen hygiene was then categorised into the categories with lower, middle and better hygiene.
  6. f A new variable for the observed personal hygiene of the caregiver and the participating child was created using factor analysis with four conceptually similar categorical variables of: (i) wearing shoes; (ii) hands are clean, (iii) piles of dirty clothes lying around in the house. The personal hygiene was then categorised into three categories with lower, intermediate and high hygiene category.
  7. * P-values were calculated by Wilcoxon rank sum test for continuous variables and McNemar test for binary outcomes
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BMC Public Health

ISSN: 1471-2458

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