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Table 5 Adjusted odd ratio estimates on the effects of WASH and other factors on prevalence of wasting among under-5 children, Ethiopia: 2000–2016

From: Association between water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and child undernutrition in Ethiopia: a hierarchical approach

Characteristics

Model 1 (AOR, 95%CI)

p-value

Model 2

(AOR, 95%CI)

p-value

Model 3

(AOR, 95%CI)

p-value

Model 4

(AOR, 95%CI)

p-value

Model 5

(AOR, 95%CI)

p-value

Model 6#

(AOR, 95%CI)

p-value

WASH factors a

            

Latrine facility

            

Improved

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

Unimproved

0.93 (0.81,1.07)

0.330

1.12 (1.01,1.24)

0.024

1.05 (0.92,1.18)

0.471

1.26 (1.09,1.45)

0.001

1.03 (0.83,1.26)

0.792

1.02 (0.83,1.24)

0.873

Open defecation

1.39 (1.21,1.59)

p < 0.001

1.31 (1.19,1.45)

p < 0.001

1.21 (1.06,1.37)

0.004

1.30 (1.12,1.52)

0.001

1.15 (0.93,1.42)

0.206

1.15 (0.93, 1.42)

0.182

Source of drinking water

            

Improved

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

Unimproved

0.98 (0.91,1.06)

0.635

1.05 (0.99,1.12)

0.089

1.01 (0.94,1.09)

0.696

0.91 (0.84,0.99)

0.039

0.84 (0.75,0.94)

0.004

0.83 (0.73,0.93)

0.002

Child stool disposal

            

Safe

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

Unsafe

1.07 (0.96,1.19)

0.208

1.14 (1.05,1.23)

0.002

1.05 (0.95,1.16)

0.310

0.96 (0.86,1.06)

0.404

1.09 (0.94,1.26)

0.233

1.09 (0.94,1.25)

0.239

Household flooring

            

Improved

1

 

1

 

1

 

1`

 

1

 

1

 

Unimproved

1.40 (1.19,1.64)

p < 0.001

1.78 (1.58,2.00)

p < 0.001

1.37 (1.18,1.59)

p < 0.001

1.36 (1.15,1.60)

p < 0.001

0.99 (0.78,1.26)

0.948

0.99 (0.78,1.25)

0.957

Time to get water source

            

On-premise

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

≤ 30 min

1.11 (0.93,1.32)

0.246

1.66 (1.45,1.91)

p < 0.001

1.26 (1.06,1.50)

0.006

1.14 (0.97,1.36)

0.114

1.14 (0.89,1.46)

0.313

1.11 (0.86,1.42)

0.412

31–60 min

1.20 (0.99,1.45)

0.059

1.55 (1.34,1.81)

p < 0.001

1.19 (0.99,1.43)

0.054

1.07 (0.89,1.29)

0.444

1.15 (0.88,1.50)

0.313

1.14 (0.87,1.48)

0.336

> 60 min

1.37 (1.13,1.65)

0.001

1.47 (1.26,1.71)

p < 0.001

1.18 (0.98,1.42)

0.083

1.07 (0.88,1.29)

0.483

1.24 (0.95,1.62)

0.116

1.24 (0.95,1.62)

0.112

Child factors

            

Childhood infections

            

Diarrhea

            

Yes

  

1.28(1.19,1.38)

p < 0.001

1.19 (1.09,1.31)

p < 0.001

1.34 (1.02,1.27)

0.020

1.26 (1.09,1.44)

0.001

1.27 (1.11,1.45)

p < 0.001

No

  

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

   

Fever

            

Yes

  

1.17 (1.09,1.26)

p < 0.001

1.14 (1.05,1.25)

0.001

1.08 (0.97,1.20)

0.135

1.25 (1.09,1.42)

0.001

1.24 (1.09,1.41)

0.001

No

  

1

   

1

 

1

 

1

 

ARI

            

Yes

  

0.83 (0.72,0.96)

0.014

0.79 (0.67,0.95)

0.011

0.91 (0.77,1.08)

0.304

    

No

  

1

 

1

 

1

     

Sex

            

Male

  

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

Female

  

0.84 (0.79,0.88)

p < 0.001

0.77 (0.72,0.83)

p < 0.001

0.78 (0.73,0.85)

p < 0.001

0.73 (0.65,0.81)

p < 0.001

0.73 (0.65,0.81)

p < 0.001

Age (months)

            

< 12

  

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

12–23

  

3.60 (3.17,4.08)

p < 0.001

3.57 (3.05,4.19)

p < 0.001

3.17 (2.60,3.85)

p < 0.001

1.07 (0.85,1.35)

0.548

1.08 (0.86, 1.36)

0.508

≥ 24 to 59 months

  

5.57 (4.91,6.31)

p < 0.001

7.38 (6.17,8.82)

p < 0.001

6.56 (5.28,8,14)

p < 0.001

0.67 (0.51,0.87)

0.003

0.65 (0.50, 0.83)

0.001

Birth order

            

Firstborn

  

1

 

1

  

1

1

 

1

 

2–4

  

1.05 (0.97,1.13)

0.202

0.88 (0.79,0.98)

0.032

0.85 (0.76,0.97)

0.013

1.07 (0.91,1.25)

0.392

1.10 (0.94,1.29)

0.214

5 or higher

  

1.15 (1.06,1.24)

p < 0.001

0.92 (0.79,1.05)

0.214

0.82 (0.71,0.94)

0.005

1.21 (1.02,1.43)

0.024

1.28 (1.09,1.50)

0.002

Size of child at birth

            

Larger

  

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

Average

  

1.22 (1.14,1.31)

p < 0.001

1.19 (1.08,1.29)

p < 0.001

1.22 (1.10,1.34)

p < 0.001

1.14 (0.99,1.29)

0.065

1.13 (0.99,1.29)

0.055

Small

  

1.63 (1.52,1.75)

p < 0.001

1.62 (1.48,1.77)

p < 0.001

1.64 (1.47,1.82)

p < 0.001

1.56 (1.36,1.79)

p < 0.001

1.58 (1.40,1.82)

p < 0.001

Currently breast feeding

            

Yes

  

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

   

No

  

0.83 (0.78,0.89)

p < 0.001

0.67 (0.61,0.73)

p < 0.001

0.61 (0.54,0.67)

p < 0.001

0.91 (0.78,1.06)

0.238

  

Received measles

            

Yes

  

1

 

1

       

No

  

1.06 (0.98,1.15)

0.116

0.96 (0.89,1.04)

0.393

      

Basic vaccine

            

Yes

  

1

         

No

  

0.97 (0.89,1.06)

0.569

        

Parental factors

            

Mother’s age

            

< 18

    

1

       

18–24

    

0.79 (0.55,1.14)

0.206

      

25–34

    

0.82 (0.56,1.19)

0.303

      

>=35

    

0.74 (0.50,1.08)

0.121

      

Mother’s education

            

No education

    

1.84 (1.24,2.71)

0.002

1.48 (1.02,2.16)

0.037

1.18 (0.69,2.02)

0.533

  

Primary

    

1.66 (1.13,2.43)

0.010

1.33 (0.93,1.93)

0.116

1.05 (0.62, 1.77)

0.847

  

Secondary

    

1.38 (0.94,2.05)

0.099

1.18 (0.81,1.72)

0.377

0.81 (0.47, 1.39)

0.445

  

Higher

    

1

 

1

 

1

   

Mother’s occupation

            

Not working

    

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

Non agriculture

    

1.02 (0.93,1.12)

0.601

1.01 (0.91,1.12)

0.887

0.86 (0.74, 1.01)

0.054

0.84 (0.73,0.97)

0.022

Agriculture

    

1.22 (1.12,1.33)

p < 0.001

1.11 (0.99,1.23)

0.051

1.02 (0.89, 1.18)

0.734

1.02 (0.89,1.17)

0.738

ANC Visit

            

None

    

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

1–3

    

0.87 (0.79,0.94)

0.002

0.93 (0.84,1.03)

0.159

0.92 (0.81,1.04)

0.214

0.90 (0.79,1.02)

0.108

4+

    

0.71 (0.64,0.79)

p < 0.001

0.74 (0.66,0.82)

p < 0.001

0.78 (0.67,0.91)

0.002

0.74 (0.64,0.87)

p < 0.001

Maternal BMI (kg/m2)

            

< 18.5

    

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

18.5 to 24.9

    

0.96 (0.89,1.04)

0.347

0.93 (0.85,1.02)

0.116

0.64 (0.57,0.72)

p < 0.001

0.65 (0.58,0.73)

p < 0.001

25 +

    

0.79 (0.66,0.95)

0.017

0.79 (0.65,0.96)

0.019

0.39 (0.29,0.53)

p < 0.001

0.39 (0.28,0.52)

p < 0.001

Husband’s education

            

No education

    

1.33 (1.04,1.69)

0.019

1.51 (1.17, 1.93)

0.001

1.06 (0.76, 1.47)

0.738

  

Primary

    

1.22 (0.96,1.54)

0.103

1.38 (1.08,1.75)

0.009

0.87 (0.62,1.21)

0.411

  

Secondary

    

0.99 (0.78,1.27)

0.977

1.14 (0.89,1.47)

0.289

1.12 (0.79, 1.57)

0.508

  

Higher

    

1

 

1

 

1

   

Husband’s occupation

            

Not working

    

0.65 (0.52,0.80)

p < 0.001

0.75 (0.61,0.92)

0.007

1.06 (0.81, 1.38)

0.654

1.08 (0.83,1.40)

0.571

Agriculture

    

1.01 (0.92,1.12)

0.782

1.11 (0.99,1.24)

0.066

1.16 (0.98, 1.36)

0.077

1.16 (0.99, 1.35)

0.062

Non agriculture

    

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

Listening to radio

            

Not at all

    

1

       

Yes

    

0.99 (0.91,1.07)

0.820

      

Watching television

            

Not at all

    

1

 

1

 

1

 

1

 

Yes

    

0.84 (0.75,0.94)

0.002

0.92 (0.82,1.03)

0.152

0.78 (0.66,0.92)

0.003

0.71 (0.61,0.84)

p < 0.001

Household factors

            

Wealth index

            

Poor

      

1.33 (1.13,1.56)

0.001

1.35 (1.14,1.60)

p < 0.001

1.40 (1.18,1.66)

p < 0.001

Middle

      

1.15 (0.95,1.38)

0.143

1.24 (1.03,1.50)

0.022

1.27 (1.05,1.53)

0.012

Rich

      

1

 

1

1

1

 

Household Size

            

1–4

      

0.94 (0.84,1.04)

0.231

    

>=5

      

1

     

Community Level Factors

            

Residence

            

Urban

        

1

 

1

 

Rural

        

0.57 (0.44,0.72)

p < 0.001

0.58 (0.46,0.73)

p < 0.001

Region

            

Agrarian

        

0.96 (0.79,1.17)

0.711

  

Pastoralist

        

0.95 (0.78,1.17)

0.654

  

City administrations

        

1

   

Ecological Zone

            

< 1500

        

1.61 (1.30,1.99)

p < 0.001

1.61 (1.30,1.99)

p < 0.001

1500–2500

        

1.18 (0.96,1.46)

0.105

1.17 (0.96,1.45)

0.115

> 2500

        

1

 

1

 
  1. AOR (Adjusted Odds Ratio); COR (Crude Odds Ratio), WASH (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene), LL: Log-likelihood
  2. Model 0: Empty model (-LL: -11893.181), ICC(%): 3.27, AIC: 23790.36, BIC: 23807.1
  3. Model 1: WASH variables only (-LL: -11137.13), ICC(%): 2.87, AIC: 22294.26, BIC: 22377.31
  4. Model 2: WASH + Child related factors (from model 0 with p < 0.20) (-LL: -15302.49), ICC(%): 3.10, AIC: 30654.98, BIC: 30858.13
  5. Model 3: WASH + Child related factors (from model 2 with p < 0.20) + Parental factors (from model 0 with p < 0.20) (-LL: -10101.304)
  6. Model 4: WASH + Child related factors s(p < 0.20) + Parental factors (from model 0 with p < 0.20) + Household factors (-LL: -4938.8883), ICC(%): 2.08; AIC: 10019.7, BIC: 10328.02
  7. Model 5: WASH + Child related factors (p < 0.20) + Parental factors (from model 0 with p < 0.20) + Household factors (from model 4 with p < 0.2) + Community level factors (-LL: -4940.3857), ICC(%):1.56, AIC: 9968.771, BIC: 10299.64
  8. Model 6: (final model): The final model includes only variables with a p < 0.2 from model 5. (-LL: -4990.04 ), ICC(%): 1.70, AIC: 10050.08, BIC: 10313.57
  9. aVariables such as household drinking water service and combined sanitation facility were removed by the model due to multicollinearity
  10. # WASH factors significant associated with wasting (p < 0.05)
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