Table 2 Cost drivers
|  | Item (Reference) | Statistical test with value (p value or effect size), (BLR: bivariate linear regression, GLM: general linear model, CS: Chi square test, FE: Fisher’s exact test) |
|---|---|---|
Positive Effect (higher costs) | • General Hospital [34] • Hospital, Health Centers (HC) Level 3 [64] • Private facilities [41] | • NRa • NRa • NRa |
• Family size (4–6 people) [35] • Family size (>6 people) [35] | • BLR (ß-Coefficient adjusted: 0.107 (0.044, 0.171), unadjusted: 0.122 (0.050, 0.195)) • BLR (ß-Coefficient adj.: 0.115 (0.044, 0.186), unadj.: 0.122 (0.050, 0.195)) | |
Higher Distance from hospital [35] | BLR (ß-Coefficient adj.: 0.003 (0.002, 0.004), unadj.: 0.003 (0.002, 0.004)) | |
Presence of a companion [35] | BLR (ß-Coefficient adj.: 0.096 (0.057, 0.135), unadj.: 0.106 (0.064, −0.149) | |
• Hypertension stage 2 [35] • Higher number of antihypertensives or stage [41] • Multidrug treatment [38] | • BLR (ß-Coefficient adj.: 0.070 (0.023, 0.118), unadj.: 0.074 (0.021, 0.126)) • NRa • GLM (Exp(b) = 1.32, p < 0.001) | |
• Inpatient admission [37] • Hospitalization [38] | • NRa • GLM (Exp(b) = 1.87, p < 0.001) | |
• Highest Socioeconomic status (SES) [38] • Higher income quintiles [59] | • GLM (Exp(b) = 1.4, p < 0.001) • NRa | |
• Education college and above [38] • Government employment [38] | • GLM (Exp(b) = 1.35, p = 0.016) • GLM (Exp(b) = 1.30, p = 0.012) | |
• plus Comorbidity [38, 47, 54] • plus heart disease [47] • plus renal disease [47] | • GLM (Exp(b) = 1.20, p = 0.04), FE (34.940, p = <0.001), T test (2.899, p = 0.004) • FE (8.879, p = 0.012), NRa • FE (20.082, p = 0.001) • FE (6.673, p = 0.030) | |
Sick visit (compared to average) [44] | NRa | |
• plus Insurance (total cost) [45] • plus insurance (cardiovascular medication) [45] • plus Insurance (Consultation) [45] | • CS (p < 0.0001) • CS (p < 0.0001) • CS (p = 0.018) | |
No effect | Age [35, 38, 54], gender [35, 38, 54], secondary / tertiary education [35, 38], marital status [35], residence (urban/rural) [35], stage (prehypertension to stage 1) [35], duration of illness [35], plus comorbidity [35], plus dyslipidemia [47], plus complications [38], occupation farmer [38], middle SES [38], income group [54], persistence to therapy [54], plus insurance (Transport, Chest x ray, Blood test, Echocardiography, other, non-cardiovascular medication) [45] | |
Negative effect (reduced costs) | • HC [34] • HC level 2, level 4 [64] | • NRa• NRa |
Primary education (vs no education) [35] | BLR (ß-Coefficient adj.: −0.072 (−0.0124, −0.020), unadj.: −0.068 (−0.126, −0.009)) | |
Retirement [38] | GLM (Exp(b) = 0.71, p = 0.001) | |
Diagnostic visit, medicine collection, scheduled visit, inpatient admission (compared to average) [44] | NRa | |
Plus insurance (Electrocardiogram) [45] | CS (p = 0.001) | |
• Lower stage [54] • Lower number of antihypertensives [54] • Generic Ramipril (vs branded) [55] | • T-test (4.689, p < 0.001) • T-test (21.313, p < 0.001) • T-test (4.54, p = 0.005) | |
Controlled Hypertension [54] | T-test (2.618, p = 0.009) | |
% of household income spent on treatment <10% (compared to ≥10% spent) [54] | T-test (12.719, p < 0.001) | |