Table 1 Summary of systematic reviews

Artmann et al. 2018 [20]

To consider urban development (peri-) urban agriculture (UPA) as a nature-based solution for societal challenges. This systematic literature review investigates UPA in the global north and its impacts on societal challenges and co-benefits. Based on findings, it aims to develop an integrative assessment framework for evaluating the implementation of UPA

The value of UPA is its multifunctional nature; it contributes to food security, climate change, biodiversity and ecosystem services, sustainable agriculture, resource efficiency, urban regeneration, land management, public health, social cohesion, and economic growth. UPA can exist in many forms, such as public community gardening or semi-public allotments. When successfully managed, UPA can help urban residents reconnect with nature and reclaim public spaces

Audate et al. 2019 [11]

The aim of this study was to explore the impacts of urban agriculture (UA) on the determinants of health and identify knowledge gaps for future UA studies by conducting a scoping review of peer-reviewed literature

More peer-reviewed studies are needed in areas where UA is practiced such as Latin America and Caribbean. The inconsistency and the lack of strong quality in the methodology of the included studies are proof that more rigorous studies are also needed in future research. Nevertheless, the substantial existing evidence from this review corroborate that UA can influence different determinants of health such as food security, social capital, health and well-being in a variety of contexts

Garcia et al. 2018 [9]

To investigate how urban gardens impact healthy food practices, healthy food access, and healthy food beliefs, knowledge and attitudes

Participation in urban gardens was associated with positive outcomes on practices of adequate and healthy food intake and food perceptions. Findings suggest that community interventions may yield changes in knowledge and attitude by activating willingness for healthier food practices

Iacovou et al. 2013 [21]

To investigate whether community kitchens can provide positive social and nutritional outcomes to participants and their families

Findings suggest that community kitchens can be an effective way of enhancing people’s cooking abilities, social networks, and nutritional intake. Community kitchens might also be able to improve budgeting skills of participants and alleviate concerns on food insecurity. However, there is a need for more rigorous qualitative and quantitative studies to effectively assess the issue

Kondo et al. 2018 [8]

To evaluate stress responses to deliberate exposure to outdoor environments in the forms of nature viewing, outdoor walks, outdoor exercise, and gardening

Findings show that spending time outdoors, especially in green space, reduces the experience of stress and thereby enhances a person’s health

Kunpeuk et al. 2020 [12]

To explore the relationships between community gardening, nutrition and physical health in adults

Findings suggested that community gardens produced significantly positive effects in fruit and vegetable consumption. For physical health outcomes, only some of the reviewed studies showed positive results. However, evidence was found that community gardening has a positive effect on BMI reduction. The study suggests the need for more research on the causal relationship between gardening and health outcomes if community gardens are to be integrated into health promoting policies at the population level

McCormack et al. 2010 [10]

To provide an evaluation of the literature available on farmers’ markets and community garden programs and their potential to increase fruit and vegetable intake

Farmers’ markets and community gardens can increase access to fruit and vegetables, particularly in low-income areas where healthy foods are less accessible. By increasing access to fresh fruits and vegetables, diets can be improved. However, more research is required on the specific health benefits of these interventions

Optiz et al. 2016 [22]

To provide an evaluation of the literature available on urban and peri-urban agriculture in the Global North, understanding their commonalities and differences as well as their influence on urban food security

Both urban and peri-urban agriculture are valuable to urban food planning but the two differ in outcomes. Urban agriculture meets the food needs of households whereas peri-urban agriculture can provide higher quantities of food to a larger population

Poulsen et al. 2015 [23]

To assess the relationship between urban agriculture and food security in low income countries

Although participation in urban agriculture does not fully alleviate the pressure of food security, it can help women’s contribution to household food availability, and provide economic and social advancement. If agricultural policies support the incorporation of urban agriculture (including the integration of gender) then urban agricultural practice can become more effective. More research is required in settings where supportive policies have been enacted

Robinson-O’Brien et al. 2009 [16]

To investigate the impact that garden-based youth nutrition programs have on nutrition-related outcomes

Findings from this review suggest that garden-based nutrition intervention programs may have the potential to increase fruit and vegetable intake among youth and increase willingness to try fruits and vegetables among younger children. However, there is a need for well-designed, evidenced-based, peer-reviewed studies to determine program effectiveness and impact

Schram-Bijkerk et al. 2018 [24]

To assess the health effects of urban gardening through use of a framework

The study develops a set of indicators that assess ecosystem services and health impacts of urban gardens and can be useful in decision-making processes in urban management. The study suggests that urban gardens may improve the health of the community by overcoming the societal challenges of urbanization, health and well-being in aging populations and climate adaptation. Additionally, urban gardens form social-networks and can contribute to the cohesiveness of a community, promoting health and well-being

Smith et al. 2013 [17]

To explore whether community gardens can increase healthy food accessibility in Metropolitan Atlanta communities

The study suggests that community gardens had a minimal impact on food access in urban communities. However, food policy advocacy and supermarket tax incentives were identified as effective ways to promote healthy community development

Spano et al. 2020 [19]

To examine the effect of community gardening on outcomes related to psychosocial wellbeing

Nevertheless, an effect of publication bias and study heterogeneity has been detected. Despite the presence of a large number of qualitative studies on the effect of horticulture/gardening on psychosocial well-being, quantitative studies are lacking. There is a strong need to advance into further high-quality studies on this research topic given that gardening has promising applied implications for human health, the community, and sustainable city management

Warren et al. 2015 [18]

To explore the association between urban agriculture and food security, dietary diversity, and nutritional status. Also, to examine whether urban agriculture is an effective solution to urban food insecurity

Causation could not be assigned due to the low quality or the study designs. Before urban agriculture can be recommended as a solution to urban food security challenges, more research needs to be conducted on the topic