The inequalities and determinants of Households’ Distress Financing on Out-off-Pocket Health expenditure in Malaysia

Table 4 Modified Poisson regression model of the distress financing determinants among households in Malaysia (n = 5,146)

Characteristics	β	RR	95% CI for RR	SE for RR	p-value
Household location
Urban (ref.)
Rural	-0.02	0.98	0.86, 1.13	0.07	0.810
Total of household members aged 65 years and older
0 (ref.)
1	0.66	1.94	1.68, 2.24	0.14	< 0.001 ^***
2 and more	0.46	1.59	1.26, 2.01	0.19	< 0.001 ^***
Total of household members aged less than 5 years
0 (ref.)
1	-0.24	0.79	0.62, 1.00	0.09	0.047 ^*
2 and more	0.10	1.11	0.79, 1.55	0.19	0.550
Household size
Less than 5 (ref.)
5 and more	0.08	1.08	0.87, 1.35	0.12	0.492
Socio-economic status
Poorest (ref.)
Poor	-0.55	0.57	0.48, 0.69	0.05	< 0.001 ^***
Middle	-0.55	0.58	0.47, 0.71	0.06	< 0.001 ^***
Rich	-0.91	0.40	0.31, 0.52	0.05	< 0.001 ^***
Richest	-1.03	0.36	0.27, 0.48	0.05	< 0.001 ^***
Total of household members received outpatient care in the past 2 weeks
0 (ref.)
1	0.12	1.13	0.96, 1.32	0.09	0.131
2	0.21	1.23	0.92, 1.65	0.19	0.163
More than 2	-0.11	0.90	0.43, 1.86	0.33	0.767
Total of household members received inpatient care in the past 12 months
0 (ref.)
1	0.24	1.28	1.07, 1.52	0.11	0.006 ^**
2	0.46	1.58	1.06, 2.35	0.32	0.026 ^*
More than 2	0.09	1.10	0.20, 6.00	0.95	0.915
Total of household members received oral healthcare in the past 12 months
0 (ref.)
1	0.04	1.04	0.88, 1.22	0.09	0.670
2	-0.15	0.86	0.66, 1.12	0.11	0.256
More than 2	0.16	1.17	0.88, 1.56	0.17	0.288
Supplementary Health Coverage
No coverage (ref.)
One coverage	-0.08	0.92	0.79, 1.07	0.07	0.288
More than 1 coverage	-0.02	0.98	0.81, 1.19	0.10	0.841

Note: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 (significance level at 10%, 5%, and 1%, respectively)
Cox-Snell, R squared = 0.049, Nagelkerke, R squared = 0.084
χ² = 347.91, p < 0.001
RR is Relative Risk, CI is Confidence Interval, SE is Standard Error

ISSN: 1471-2458