Table 3 Main themes, corresponding subthemes with illustrative quotes from each research team

1: Clearer and more consistent messaging was needed

Agree that government messaging is working

“I’ve seen the message saying, ‘Stay at home’… they’ve been utilising hashtags like ‘protect the NHS’ and it’s on social media when we’re going through it…and we’re like… ‘Yeah, let’s do something about it’” (Group 4, aged 17–18-years, Southampton)

Short, simple messaging

“There’s not loads and loads of things you need to follow. They’re just sort of saying be careful and stay inside.” (14–16 year old, Edinburgh)

Aware of government messaging, but required research for understanding

“Um, I think when, like when Boris does his announcements, I think he should get someone else to go over what he's about to say. Like, because I feel like the team that he has around him, doesn't really know how to deliver the message properly. Because it takes a lot. When he first says something, I don't get it, like, I check online, and I see what other people like how they analyse what they (the government) said.” (Group 6, 18–20-year-old, London)

Preference for clear, concise messaging

“I feel like in England… people are bending the rules and it’s not that clear, I’ve found, ‘cause I found at the start people like driving to exercise and like, and then people—people found out you got fines for it and I thought it was quite like mixed messages.” (Group 5, 17–18-year-old, Brighton)

Preference for short, simple messaging

“I think like putting it out in like short snappy messages rather than, you know, a big long spiel. Just having it real short, snappy slogans are easy to remember. Having it that way, you know, if you see it all the time you will end up just doing it automatically.” (11–13 year old, Edinburgh)

Preference for clear, concise messaging

“Everyone has no idea what's going on. People are scared. People are dying. So, the higher places like government, people aren’t sure as well. It makes it worse for everyone else. So, I understand where they’re coming from, but also they need to like set down rules, which will apply to you. Not just’Oh, you want to stay five feet apart? Or just stay six feet apart?’ It doesn't really make any sense.” (Group 4, 16–17- year- old, London) “I think the government just saying for us to just stay home. That's basically our role.” (Group 3, 16–17-year-old, London)

Confusion around exam plans and poor communication

“The government weren’t really sure themselves what was gonna’ happen. And they were like, “Oh, yeah, in a week’s time you’ll find out.” …what grades… would be based on was quite a big question and to not to come out with that alongside the cancelling of the exams probably wasn’t the best idea, ‘cause it just left loads of people with unanswered questions.” (Group 5, 17–18-year-old, Brighton)

Ambiguous guidance Insufficient SQA communication At the beginning teacher’s advice differed from Gov advice Lack of clear information from universities Ambiguity around language: essential travel

“Since they announced that the exams were cancelled… you can tell the teachers have no idea what is going on. For some classes, the teacher is messaging the whole class every day with a different task. And some classes we have not heard anything since we were at school.” (16–18-year-old, Edinburgh) “They said there can only be essential travel. And then I wasn't sure… if I wanted to fly home… if that would be included….And then you got a letter from our university saying that going home was not essential travel. But then flights were still going” (19–25-year-old, Edinburgh)

Confusion around exam plans and poor communication

“I kind of want to know what they're thinking of, to help us with a future because of what has happened. Now a lot has changed, especially with the exams, and how we're going to be graded and everything.” (Group 4, 16–17-year-old, London)

2: Positive messaging and messages with positive language were preferred

Desire for positive messaging

“There has been so much focus on the bad things that are happening… but they haven’t really brought up what you could do with your time… it’s been a lot of ‘no, you can’t do this, no, don’t do that’ and maybe they need to look into what you can do instead.” (Group 3, 15–16-year-old, Southampton)

Preference for positive messaging Frustration at negative news Instagram used for positive stories

“Yeah, I feel like positive even draws you in more, because it reaches a point where you are like “no I don’t want to even look at that anymore” because you know that is going to be quite negative. I remember on the news the other day there was a really nice story reporting on people in a community doing something and we all wanted to watch it. The news had been on the whole evening and we hadn’t been kind of watching it, but when there is something nice it kind of attracts you more to the place it is coming from.” (16–18-year-old, Edinburgh)

Mitigated anxiety by avoiding negative messaging and news

“But when I got back to my own place, I think I think I had much more of a structured routine, and that really benefited me. And also, I don't have a TV. And I think that was such a benefit because I don't watch the news. So, I just felt less sort of anxious about what was going on. I wasn't seeing the death toll. So, it was sort of, not outside of mind completely, but it wasn't being constantly pushed in my face. Like, this is what's happening. And I think that helped a lot with like feeling anxious and stuff.” (Group 1, 21–25-year-old, London)

3: Messaging should include young people and be on every available platform

Messaging needs to be specific to young people Social media is the main source of information

“There’s actually been a lot on social media they are targeting quite a lot at our age on Twitter, on Instagram… on pretty much everything you see adverts for it all the time.” (Group 4, 17–18-year-old, Southampton) “Considering a lot of teenagers have become a lot more bound to technology, they could like spread the message [with] a viral video.” (Group 2, 13–14-year-old, Southampton)

Not relevant to 16 + age group Not acknowledging general struggles of young people

“I guess there is not that much information directed directly at us at the moment. So it would be good to have stuff that would be directly relating to us” (16–18-year-old, Edinburgh) “The sense of uncertainty also affects my motivation to try and figure out my future. I had intended to try and find a job for right after I handed in my dissertation, but I feel so unmotivated to do so and have convinced myself that finding a job will be impossible during this time” (19–25-year-old, Edinburgh)

Messaging needs to be targeted and accessible to young people Disconnection from traditional media outlets and seeking news from social media Inclusion is messaging is needed especially within racialised communities

“they (government officials) weren’t even referring to us when they were saying young people on the TV. They were referring to, like, people aged like 20 to 40ish. And they kind of excluded us in their, like plans and explanations, there hasn't really been much. I don't know, room to explain anything for us.” (Group 4, 16–17- year- old, London) “Every single news clipping I saw was screenshotted onto social media. Regardless, like young people don't read the news. It's the reason why a lot of people found out about social distancing, because it would be posted onto social media and suddenly it's like it's everywhere. It wasn't like all people have to watch news to know that we have the social distancing message measures or things like that. It was all over social media anyway.” (Group 7, 18–20-year-old, London)

4: The government is the official source of information, but trust has been lost

I don't fully trust the government to make the right decisions

‘I think they started it too late, because if they started in earlier, then we would have had less cases’ (Group 7, 15–16-year-old, Birmingham) ‘It’s kind of like an unnecessary loss of lives, like we shouldn’t have lost 20,000 people [….] if you act too late it’s going to have detrimental effects.’ (Group 7, 15–16-year-old, Birmingham) ‘I think they have done a really bad job, because they had their own idea of herd immunity [….] it turned out that idea was not a good one…’ (Group 4, 17–18-year-old, Southampton) ‘Testing is awful. The numbers are so low when we’re such a rich country, we can’t afford something like that, I think it’s a bad image really.’ (Group 4, 17–18-year-old, Southampton)

Trust in news depends on outlet Teachers as trusted authority but advice differed from gov advice at beginning Trust in the government Trust in social media: Twitter as a major/ preferred source

“They kind of all repeat each other. Like I’ve got BBC News and Sky News and Sun App on my phone. And so, in the morning I’ll get the notifications, and they’ve all said the same things, but the Sun’s added in some dramatic words.” (14–16-year-old, Edinburgh) “My teacher was saying we’re gonna not be off school… and then one day later… Boris Johnson and all the news and everything was saying all schools are closing on Friday and like that just made me trust the news more.” (11–13-year-old, Edinburgh) “I didn't really trust [the UK Government] from the beginning just because I felt like things should have been done and they weren't being done. So I was self-isolating even before the lockdown.” (19–25-year-old, Edinburgh) “Yeah I was trying to get…my information from official twitter accounts, you know like the First Minister twitter account and like following the sort of blue tick twitter accounts.” (11–13-year-old, Edinburgh)

Distrust and disagreement with the government’s handling

“Yeah. Exactly. There isn't as much transfer. And the government isn't, or hasn't been certain on how things are being transferred, or how to regulate it.” (Focus Group 7, 18–20-year-old)

5: Non-compliance was viewed as being unfair and selfish

I feel angry when I see others break the rules Influencers set a bad example Rebelling publicly Young vs old people adhere differently Adults and older people not following the advice Empathy and sympathy for others It would take something extreme to get people to listen to the advice

“Yeah, and it feels like when you see them going out, it’s a bit of a, like a bit of a kick in the face ‘cause you can’t go out and you’re following the guidelines and seeing like the massive numbers that come out on the radio of people that are dying every day and it’s like, I don’t know, I just find it really selfish that people are going out.” (Group 6, 15–16-year-old, Manchester) “People are doing it just to get a reaction, because me personally, I would never, ever go out and meet someone right now. I wouldn’t be allowed and I wouldn’t want to do it anyway. But if I did and if I put it on social media, I would expect people to give me a reaction because I know I’m not supposed to be doing it and so does everybody else…people do it, just so they can look to everybody else like, “Oh, they’re really cool.” ‘Cause they’re breaking all the rules and they’re going out to meet their friends when they know they shouldn’t be.” (Group 6, 15–16-year-old, Manchester) “I definitely think older people don’t listen as much because my grandparents, before they got ill were going out almost every day like on walks and stuff like. And then just socialising when they shouldn’t have. When I’ve gone round the shop to buy essential items, I do see a lot of middle-aged people out and about doing stuff and I just think like they should be staying at home, ‘cause the statistics do reflect that… but I definitely think that older people do go out more.” (Group 4, 17–18-year-old, Southampton) “Maybe they haven’t got the parental support and family support behind them. And they’ll just be saying “Whatever. I’m going out. I’m not staying home with my abusive dad.” I think it just depends where you’re from… I definitely think poorer communities probably will have it worse.” (Group 4, 17–18-year-old, Southampton) “I think the government should introduce like proper action against it to scare people from doing it in a way, like fines maybe ‘cause, yeah, it’s a bit annoying when people disobey the rules when everyone else is following it and it’s all in the best interest of the population to get rid of it.” (Group 3, 15–16-year-old, Southampton)

Perception of older age groups as non-compliant compared to peers Aware of the view that younger people did not take the restrictions seriously Perceptions of peers as “non-compliant” Perception of other people as “selfish” Perception that “others don't take measures seriously”

” Influencer behaviour Highlighting inequalities Empathy and sympathy for others

“And it’s just annoying, because if we’re young and we can do it, why can’t people that are older than us not follow the instructions.” (Young person, aged 14–16, Edinburgh) “I think that although lot of people are like the young people are not taking it serious enough and are still going out, I only know one person who is like considering going out. Everybody else has gone, no, we need to stay home, and I see more like going out to do things against the guidance in the old group.” (14–16-year-old, Leicester) “I've noticed though a lot of young people especially just don't care if they pass it on to someone who could die from it.” (19–25-year-old, Manchester) “It's kind of a shame seeing people not taking social distancing seriously because I see it as pretty selfish (maybe that's because I live at home with at-risk parents), but to not distance is not only putting yourself in danger but others close to you” (19–25-year-old, Edinburgh) “Where I live people are still like close and friends are chatting and stuff and I don’t think they are taking it too seriously.” (11–13-year-old, Edinburgh) “That you get the celebrities who do say it's so easy, like, why is no one doing it? Like come on, guys, just stay inside. And they've got their pool and their gym and, you know, like all their staff and just like these beautiful houses. And I think a lot of people's lives aren't take into consideration. Like people can be having really hard times at home and really struggle to be able to stay in the house even for a day.” (19–25-year-old, Edinburgh) “Staying inside isn’t easy for some but of course its a no brainer there’s nothing to really do in public spaces and I’m so aware of putting others at risk. I’m also lucky to have access to a garden” (19–25-year-old, Edinburgh)

Frustration towards those not staying home People meeting in large groups sets precedent for others to follow

“So, I just think that there's certain functions now where there's pubs open and people can turn to Brooks Park. I mean, I know Brooks Park do tickets, and you can be on regulation. I still think that people shouldn't really be having to go out in a large sum of people. You know, even I didn't want to get on the bus. Still. I still don’t want to get on the bus. I’d rather go to get the train. Yeah, but I don't think restaurants should be open right now.” (Group 1, 21–25-year-old, London) “So I will say that like, just from experiences from this entire lockdown period of me caring about people who have got sick, or people whose family have gotten sick and things like that, like, it's become a bit up and down for me because it's like you see large crowds gathering and then you don't hear about anything really happening.” (Group 7, 18–20-year-old, London) “It wasn't small. It was active. If you saw that beach, it was active. Like people were there, people were celebrating. This wasn't the first time this happened in Brighton when it was sunny. Everybody and their uncle was on that beach area. And it was disgusting. Nobody cared about COVID. And did we hear about any spikes of COVID? In Britain after any of these things happened? No. we didn’t hear nothing.” (Group 7, 18–20-year-old, London) “The park was pretty packed. You just see like the police just not even caring, like nonsense. Like no one's taking it seriously. It's like people not taking it seriously, influence other people not to take it seriously.” (Group 3, 16–17- year- old, London)

6: A sense of responsibility to protect others drives compliance

I'm happy to make sacrifices now if things can go back to normal quicker Behaviour of teenagers Having a positive attitude Bringing people together and a sense of camaraderie

“We all have an incentive because the more people stay at home…the sooner we can tackle this and the quicker we’ll be done with lockdown and we can get back to our own lives.” (Group 4, 17–18-year-old, Southampton) “I think it comes a lot from your parents because… if your parents are taking it more seriously, then it can encourage children to take it more seriously.” (Group 6, 15–16-year-old, Manchester)

“I think the majority of people are listening to what they’re saying, especially in our age group and the five percent that aren’t… you see like people photographing sort of young people hanging out in a park …you can’t just assign a few small instances like that and [use it as] a ‘scape-goat’ for the government… “Oh, well, it’s not our fault. We did all we could. These people are hanging out in a park.” No, there are some things that you could’ve done better at the beginning.” (Group 4, 17–18-year-old, Southampton)

Things that make me want to comply Responsibility- prevent spread, protect NHS Fear for own personal safety and for friends and family To end lockdown/disruptions sooner Social pressure to follow or not follow advice Follow advice as they are told to do so by higher authorities

“There is a lot of responsibility, because obviously we are apparently the age group that if we carry it, it will be very mild and we are likely to pass it on without knowing.” (16–18-year-old, Edinburgh) “It’s not about us getting it, it’s about spreading it on to people who are more vulnerable and not crowding up the NHS.” (11–13-year-old, Edinburgh) “But I think if we all stay indoors or home, then it will be over quicker” (16–18-year-old, Edinburgh) “At the beginning of social distancing and gatherings I had to cancel plans and appeal to group chats not to have the meet-ups which I found challenging” (19–25-year-old, Edinburgh) “At the time I found it too much but after mentioning plans to parents they simply told me cancel it and spread the word so I did” (19–25-year-old, Edinburgh)

Concern for protecting others and responsibility to wider community Closely following social distancing guidelines Collective response by following guidelines Practical means to supporting community during this difficult time

“The new social norm has been putting your mask on and going outside and always wearing antibac and stuff like that. And before I didn't really care, but obviously, hanging around others, you have to be conscious and considerate. So now, of course, I do wear my mask. And I think about how it could affect others, as well as myself.” (Group 7, 18–20-year-old, London) “I haven't really been outside much. I haven’t been outside. I think, actually, I've only been outside I would say six times since before lockdown—Yeah, I hadn't really been outside.” (Group 1, 21–25-year-old, London) “Young people have done a lot, like they have helped. They have tried to do as much as possible with the limitations in place. It is like if we were to no go out, that would then be the issue. One thing that I want to point out is how young people responded to not having Carnival. Even though they were mad, this was the most mature I've actually seen young people in like in UK over something so big. Because Carnival has not been cancelled in ever since it's been going on.” (Group 7, 18–20-year-old, London)

7: Young People want to do more to help others

Helpful things you can do Feeling a sense of social responsibility to stay indoors Helping more vulnerable people Spreading the message about how to keep safe

“Yeah, I think most young people are doing the right thing. You know, staying at home, keeping a distance, sticking to your household. I think I’ve witnessed maybe one, maybe a few days ago where there was about fifteen boys, our age, playing football…and that was a bit alarming just to see, it was just like, you just think, ‘Why?’ But I haven’t seen many things to say that young people aren’t listening and I think young people could even be also like set—be set as like role models. Especially—my grandparents they just don’t seem to listen and we have to keep telling them, “Please, don’t go out unless you need to because you’re at risk.” And they just don’t seem to get it until you—we keep enforcing it and enforcing it, and it’s me and my brother who are the ones trying enforce it to them.” (Group 4, 17–18-year-old, Southampton) “I think just doing a bit of grocery shopping for some of my neighbours ‘cause they’re like elderly and in the vulnerable groups and stuff. Like that’s sort of helped me feel like I’m doing something at least ‘cause obviously we’re a bit young to do anything else I think.” (Group 3, 15–16-year-old, Southampton) “[Adolescents] could also spread awareness about social distancing. Because like everyone can get [COVID]. Considering a lot of teenagers have become a lot more bound to technology, they could like spread the message like make a viral video, so that old people will see.” (Group 2, aged 12–13 year-old,, Southampton)

Being a role model Educating others (friends, family & peers) More volunteer opportunities for under 18 YP More opportunities for university students YP organising themselves

“Well like if their friends say like, sometimes if they put it on their social media story ‘someone come out today’ they should say no don’t go out because you will pass it on.” (11–13-year-old, Edinburgh) “Yeah, my gran said she was fed up with it, and I was like ‘No, you need to stay home’ “(14–16-year-old, Edinburgh) “I think it would be good if there were more opportunities available for people under the age of 18 especially. Because I have looked into getting jobs, volunteering for the Red Cross, and other things but you have to be 18 to do all of them. So I feel like I am stuck in a stage where I can’t really do anything. But I am like young and fit, so I wish I was able to go out and do something.” (16–18-year-old, Edinburgh) “Totally, also uni students are a large part of the population the government could engage to help” (19–25-year-old, Edinburgh) “I can see quite a few young people organising themselves into volunteer groups to deliver groceries to vulnerable people, walk dogs etc.” (19–25-year-old, Edinburgh)

Call to highlight young people’s strength and contributions to their communities

“So if we kind of remove the idea that young people are useless, they don't do anything for our society, because a lot of the times older people just say that this generation is messed up, or this generation is like useless, or this generation, they just kind of put us down a lot. So we just end up seeing ourselves as just like, we're not helpful to society, there's no point in getting involved in anything. So, if we can just present ourselves and present young people as helpful that we need you like young people. ‘You're useful young people. We care about you, young people. You're special.’ Which is anything to be able to promote ourselves, and each other is just useful, we're not useless.” (Group 3, 16–17- year- old, London)