Table 2 Characteristics of included studies
From: Mental health problems and their related factors among seafarers: a scoping review
Author (year) | Region (Country) | Study design | Data collection | Number of subjects | Indicator | Main finding | JBI Score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chung et al. (2017)Â [6] | Asia (Korea) | Cross-sectional study | Self-administered questionnaire by sending questionnaire to captain, requesting him to notify seafarers onboard | 160 seafarers container ship | Copenhagen burnout inventory (CBI) | Mean of personal burnout and work- related burnout were 35.70 and 26.29, respectively. Effort reward imbalance and sleepiness had positive effect on personal and work-related burnout. Work-related burnout mediated an incident at sea. | 8 |
Oldenburg & Jensen (2019) [14] | Europe (Germany) | Cross-sectional study | Taking saliva sample | 304 seafarers international container ship | Stress evaluated by cortisol level | Mean of stress was 0.308 (µg/dl). The highest value was among deck officers, followed by deck rating and engine room. The highest one during stay at port, followed by sea passage and river passage. | 6 |
Haka et al. (2011)Â [15] | Europe (Denmark) | Cross-sectional study | Self-administered questionnaire by letter | 346 seafarers | Item of perceived stress and isolation/loneliness | Stress and isolation/loneliness were 28.3% and 30%, respectively and demotivated going seafaring. | 6 |
Doyle et al. (2016) [16] | Europe (Ireland) | Cross-sectional study | Ship’s web-base to upload online administered questionnaire | 387 merchant seafarers (on board between 0 and 24 weeks) | Perceive stress scale assessment (PSS-4) | Mean of perceive stress among total subjects, East Asian, Caucasian, Latino/Hispanic, and South Asian were 1.32, 1.48, 1.11, 1.42, and 1.35, respectively. Higher level of resilience, longer seafaring experience and greater instrumental work support were associated with lower stress at sea. | 8 |
McVeigh et al. (2019) [17] | Europe (Ireland) | Secondary data analysis | Ship’s web-based servers uploading online administered questionnaire | 781 merchant seafarers | Perceive stress scale assessment (PSS-4) and job satisfaction scale | Mean of perceive stress and job satisfaction were 1.36 and 3.71, respectively. Dispositional resilience and higher instrumental support were associated with low perceive stress and high job satisfaction levels. Ratings and caterers as a non-officer job title had higher job satisfaction levels than officer of deck and engine division. | 6 |
Oldenburg et al. (2013)Â [18] | Europe (Germany) | Cross-sectional study | A survey questionnaire with seafarers who attended a health examination before seafaring | 251 seafarers on varied ships | Emotional exhaustion (EE) of the Maslach burnout inventory and the Epworth sleepiness scale | Burnout among total subjects, officers, ratings, and caterer were 10.8%, 10.7%, 4.5%, and 25%, respectively. Long working day (>10Â h), insufficient sleep on board, lack of care taken by the shipboard superior and/or the shipping company, high responsibility for work organization, social problem due to long periods of separation from their family were associated with burnout. | 7 |
Jurišić-Eržen et al. (2011) [19] | Europe (Croatia) | Cross-sectional study | Semi-structured interview, patient medical records, self-administered questionnaire | 52 seafarers with type 2 diabetes and 56 non-diabetic seafarers | The Beck depression Inventory (BDI) and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory | Depressive symptom and anxiety were 34% and 46% among type 2 diabetics seafarers. Depressive symptom and anxiety were 11% and 20% among non-type 2 diabetics seafarers. Duration of shipping routes over 6 months, degree of BMI, glycemic control (HbA1c> 8%), and duration of diabetes were associated with depression. | 8 |
Sąlyga & Kušleikaitė M (2011) [20] | Europe (Lithuania) | Cross-sectional study | A survey questionnaire from seafarers who attended a health examination before seafaring | 1,930 seafarers | Subjective experienced psycho-emotional strain and fatigue experienced item | Duration of voyage after 2.6 months, higher age at 35-54 years, long working hour (9 – 12 h), higher education level, vibration and noise level, increased eyestrain, insomnia, depress, waist pain, and spinal pain were associated with psycho-emotional strain. Fatigue experience during 1-2 voyage (26%) was more than during 5 voyages (14%). Insomnia was associated with fatigue. | 6 |
Nielsen et al. (2013)Â [21] | Europe (Norway) | Cross-sectional study | Questionnaire distribution while working on board | 541 seafarers from 2 Norwegian shipping companies | Intention to leave and job satisfaction scale | Mean of intention to leave was 2.23. Age, individual intention and motivation to follow safety regulations, and team cohesion were negatively associated with intention to leave. Management prioritization of production over safety and high level of quantitative job demands (degree of difficult working conditions, pressure from customers/ contractor and stress related at work) were positively associated with intention to leave. Mean of job satisfaction levels was 4.17. Individual intention and motivation to follow safety regulations, laissez-faire leadership, and team cohesion were positively associated with job satisfaction. Management prioritization of production over safety and quantitative job demands (degree of difficult working conditions, pressure from customers/ contractor and job stress) were negatively associated with job satisfaction. | 6 |
Bergheim et al. (2015)Â [22] | Europe (Norway) | Cross-sectional study | Questionnaire distributed when working on board | 1,080 seafarers | Job satisfaction scale | Mean of job satisfaction levels was 4.17. Psychological capital (self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resiliency) was related to job satisfaction. | 8 |
Tedesco et al. (2018)Â [23] | Europe (Italy) | Cross-sectional study | Self-administered questionnaire by envelope | 801 seafarers | Karasek Demand-Control-Support questionnaire | Mean of job demand and job decision latitude was 32.8 and 65.5, respectively. Job title as ratings, higher number of ports landed in a week, seafarers on cargo ship, and younger workers related to low job decision latitude. | 6 |
Slišković & Penezić (2016) [24] | Europe (Croatia) | Quantitative: descriptive study | Online questionnaire (Electronic mail) | 298 seafarers | 5 items, overall and life satisfaction, 5-item mental health inventory (5 domains: anxiety, general positive effect, depression, behavioral control, and emotional control) | Mean of job, life satisfaction and overall mental health were 16.62, 15.23 and 22.5, respectively. Characteristic of employment contract including period on board between 2-4 months, favorable ratio between working and free days, and regular shift work were associated with job and life satisfaction. Duration onboard during 2- 4 months and regular shifts contract employment were related to good mental health. | 7 |
Pauksztat (2017)Â [25] | Europe (England) | Qualitative study | Interview | 54 seafarers cargo ship | N/A | Job demand was characterized as circadian disturbance from nigh work; inability to plan from unpredictable work schedule; workload from number of ports, days at sea, time in ports, collaboration with company, amount of cargo, paper work and planning, rule and regulations; difficulty from type of cargo, pilotage, maneuvering in ports, getting supplies, traffic, weather and seasons; and intrusions from collaboration in ports, pilot on board, and insecurity. These effect on working climate, fatigue, and turnover intention. | 7 |
TavacioÄŸlu et al. (2019)Â [26] | Europe (Turkey) | Descriptive study | Face to face and online questionnaire | 203 seafarers | Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) and Minnesota Job Satisfaction Scale (MJSS) | Mean of burn out and job satisfaction among total subjects were1.59 and 3.44, respectively. Seafarers at deck department had higher burnout score and lower job satisfaction score than those at engine department. | 8 |
Oldenburg & Jensen (2019) [27] | Europe (Germany) | Cross-sectional study | Self-administered questionnaire and biometrically surveyed (physical activity and heart rate armband monitor) during working on board | 323 seafarers container ship international seafarers | Subjective physical and mental work environment stress and strain SenseWear® armband monitor and Polar RS800 | Mental and physical stress at port stay, river passage and sea passage (voyage episodes) were 37.8%, 24.8%, and 13%, respectively. Noise and vibration were a subjective strain but not objective strain. Distinction among voyage episodes had differently stress and strain. | 8 |
Oldenburg & Jensen (2019) [28] | Europe (Germany) | Cross-sectional study | Self-administered questionnaire and biometrically surveyed (physical activity and heart rate armband monitor) while working on board | 323 seafarers international container ship | Subjective physical and mental work environment stress and strain SenseWear® armband monitor and Polar RS800 | Physical or mental stress among total subjects was 65%. Physical stress among deck rating department and engine department were 74.7% and 72.4%. Mental stress among deck officer department was 86.6%. Department in ship (deck officer, desk rating, and engine) had differently stress and strain. | 7 |
McVeigh & MacLachlan (2019)Â [29] | Europe (Ireland) | Qualitative study | Focus group | 32 Filipino merchant seafarers | 20-item semi-structure focus group guidelines | Workload (stress and commercial pressure, and rest), safety, social, support, salary, food, shore leave and signing off and on, nationality and culture, management, inequality, and optimization were 11 domains related to experience of stress, resilience, and well-being. | 8 |
Xiao et al. (2017)Â [30] | Asia (PR China) | Cross-sectional study | Self-administered questionnaire by training captains of the ship to administer questionnaire | 917 seafarers at ports | Zung Self Rating Depression Scale (SDS) | Depressive symptom was 49%. Work-related psychosocial stress refers to worry about family member (66.5%), financial situation (55.4%), ship safety (64.3%), sea piracy (59.5%), port state control (51.5%), and occupational strain (52.7%). | 8 |
Gu et al. (2020)Â [31] | Asia (PR China) | Cross-sectional study | Self-administered questionnaire by online questionnaire | 294 seafarers unspecified ship | Turnover intention by Mobley et al. and job demand by Karasek | Job demand consisting of job stress, time pressure and so on was positively predicted turnover intention (intention to leave). | 5 |
Xia et al. (2016)Â [32] | Asia (PR China) | Cross-sectional study | Self-administered questionnaire, venous blood for neuroendocrine hormone level and menstruation record by training workers of the ship to collect the data | 71 female seafarers in hospital ships | 90-items self-rating psychological symptom scale (10 sub-scale such as somatization, obsessive-compulsive, anxiety, depression etc.) | Psychological evaluation of anxiety somatization, paranoia, and others were significantly high within 2-3 months of voyage. And psychological stress influences a body function including neuro-endocrine and immunological function during a long voyage. | 6 |
Yuen et al. (2018)Â [33] | Asia (Singapore) | Cross-sectional study | Online questionnaire via electronic mail | 116 seafarers | 2-item job satisfaction survey | Rewards (high salary, family benefits, training opportunities, and promotion prospect), job stress, dispositional affect (positively affect, internal locus of control, and low burnout tendencies) and job characteristics (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and job feedback) were related to job satisfaction. | 7 |
Lefkowitz et al. (2019) [34] | North America (United States of America) | Secondary descriptive study | Data from large international marine insurance from 2007–2015 | 278 international seafarers | N/A | Mental illness including social withdrawal, mood swings or other concerning change was found 3.9 per 100,000 person-years. | 6 |
Lefkowitz et al. (2020)Â [35] | North America (United States of America) | Cross-sectional study | Self-administered questionnaire at piloting training center | 233 domestic seafarers | PHQ-9 | Depressive symptom was 16%. Obesity (BMI > 35Â kg/m2), poor sleep quality, and anxiety were associated with depressive symptom. | 7 |
Silva et al. (2017)Â [36] | South America (Brazil) | Cross-sectional study | Self-administered questionnaire | 316 seafarers in water transport company | 20-items self-reporting questionnaire | Depressive/anxious mood was 14.5%. Female, family income, weekly working hours, self-report stress, thinking about quitting jobs, engine job, sedentary lifestyle, and not smoking were related to common mental health disorder. | 5 |