Table 1 General characteristics and summary of the results of the included studies

Othman, S., et al. (2019) [14]

Cross-sectional study

Six public primary care clinics in Kuala Lumpur

882 women aged 16 years and above recruited via systematic sampling

To assess the prevalence of IPV among women attending urban primary care clinics and to examine the associated risk factors

1. The prevalence of IPV in the past 12 months was estimated to be 22.0% (n = 194). Approximately 13% of them experienced psychological violence only, 0.7% reported assault only, and 8.6% experienced both.

2. Identified risk factors of IPV were women of Chinese ethnicity (AOR = 2.02, 95% CI = [1.30, 3.12]), household income of RM3,000 (AOR = 2.04; 95% CI = [1.32, 3.16]), women who have witnessed parental IPV (AOR = 3.52; 95% CI = [2.29,5.41]) and those who experienced poor psychological well-being (AOR = 2.16; 95% CI = [1.38, 3.38]).

Haron, K., et al. (2018) [15]

Cross-sectional study

A hospital in the northern state of Peninsular Malaysia

1200 post-natal women aged 18 years and above recruited via universal sampling

To determine the prevalence of men’s violence against pregnant women and its association with women’s attitude

1. Prevalence of men’s violence against pregnant women was 35.9% (CI = [0.33, 0.39]), with emotional violence the commonest (29.8%; CI = [0.27, 0.32]), followed by physical violence (12.9%; CI = [0.11, 0.15]) and sexual violence (9.8%; CI = [0.08, 0.12]).

2. Women who were drug users appeared as a risk factor for both EV and PV with AOR of 6.96 and 43.66, respectively

3. Being exposed to violence during childhood was another risk factor identified for EV (AOR 1.52 95% CI = [1.05, 2.09])

4. Multipara women (having two or more children) were more likely to experience SV during pregnancy (AOR 1.5 95% CI = [1.03, 2.17])

5. Women’s attitude which condones patriarchal supremacy, justification of husbands to hit wives and justification of wives to refuse sex on certain conditions were more likely to experience any types of violence during pregnancy (AOR 1.47 95% CI = 1.1, 1.98); (AOR 1.93 95% CI = 1.51, 2.59); (AOR 1.89 95% CI = 1.31, 2.72) respectively.

Chan, Y., Y., et al. (2019) [16]

Cross-sectional study

106 government primary health care clinics in 16 states within Malaysia

6669 women between 6 to 16 weeks post-partum, aged 18 years and above recruited via random cluster sampling

To determine the prevalence and factors associated with lifetime and past-year IPV among post-partum women

1. The overall prevalence of lifetime and past-year IPV among post-partum women in this study were 4.94% (95% CI [3.81,6.39]) and 2.42% (95% CI [1.74,3.35]) respectively.

2. Husband’s/partner’s behavioral factors significantly associated with a higher likelihood of lifetime IPV are frequent alcohol drinking (AOR = 9.11, 95% CI [2.44, 34.04]), drug use (AOR = 5.70, 95% CI [1.25, 26.07]), involvement in physical fights (AOR = 23.48, 95% CI [8.65, 63.76]) and controlling behaviors (AOR = 2.77, 95% CI [1.44, 5.33]).

3. Chinese women were significantly less likely to report the experience of past-year IPV compared to Malay women (AOR = 0.18, 95% CI [0.04,0.82]). Post-partum women who were currently not married/ no current partner were significantly more likely to have experienced IPV in the past year compared to those who were currently married/ has a partner (AOR = 11.27, 95% CI [2.26,56.17]).

4. Husband’ s/partner’s behavioural factors were all significantly associated with a higher likelihood of women experiencing past-year IPV; frequent alcohol drinking (AOR = 10.37, 95% CI [2.96, 36.33]), drug use (AOR = 9.55, 95% CI [3.48, 26.18]), involvement in physical fights (AOR = 10.81, 95% CI [3.60, 32.49]) and controlling behaviours (AOR = 5.90, 95%CI [2.70, 12.86]).

Awang, H., et al. (2011) [17]

A cross-sectional study based on secondary data

Secondary data obtained from Malaysia Women’s Aid Organization (WAO)

164 case files of women who sought shelter services from 2002 to 2005

To investigate the extent & determinants of domestic violence within a multi-ethnic society in Malaysia

1. Frequency of abuse: 26% of the survivors being abused nearly daily, 37% abused up to three times a week, and 26% are victims of an unpredictable frequency of abuse

2. Significant protective factors for nearly daily of abuse: Age of perpetrator between 30 and 39 (OR 0.375, p = 0.064); Nil income of survivor (OR 0.311, p = 0.018).

3. Significant protective factors for 1–3 times of abuse a week: Number of children:1–3 child (OR 0.441, p = 0.088)

4. Significant risk factor for once or twice of abuse a month: Age of perpetrator: ≤29 years Age (OR 15.337, p = 0.019)

Yut-Lin, W., et al. (2008) [18]

Cross-sectional study

Eight primary health centres in Selangor

710 female patients above 16 years of age recruited via convenient sampling

To identify domestic violence and its prevalence among adult women patients attending the primary care clinics

To determine the relationship between social correlates such as income, education, ethnicity, location (urban/rural) and residence of adult patients, and domestic violence screening

1. Prevalence of domestic violence = 5.6% measured through the WAST screening score

2. Significant factors associated with domestic violence were Indian ethnicity (χ2 = 24.247, df = 3, P < 0.001); low income group were at greater risk of experiencing DV (χ2 = 8.812, df = 2, P = 0.012), lower education level of both victims and partners (χ2 = 14.398, df = 3, P = 0.002; χ2 = 22.788, df = 4, P < .0.001) respectively.