Table 2 Association between geographical characteristics and individual-based loneliness (multilevel logistic regression)

Index of Multiple Deprivation (IMD) (ref = 1st quintile –least deprived)

2nd quintile

1.44 (1.13–1.85), 0.004

1.26 (0.97–1.64), 0.087

1.17 (0.88–1.56), 0.281

3rd quintile

1.36 (1.05–1.78), 0.021

1.28 (0.97–1.70), 0.086

1.30 (0.97–1.76), 0.083

4th quintile

1.54 (1.17–2.04), 0.002

1.19 (0.88–1.60), 0.250

1.09 (0.78–1.50), 0.607

5th quintile-most deprived

2.0 (1.48–2.71), < 0.001

1.38 (0.99–1.92), 0.056

1.13 (0.78–1.61), 0.520

p-value for trend

< 0.001

0.096

0.532

Urban/rural character (ref = Urban)

Town and fringe

0.99 (0.76–1.28), 0.923

1.10 (0.83–1.45), 0.503

1.13 (0.84–1.51), 0.433

Village

0.84 (0.63–1.12), 0.240

0.97 (0.71–1.32), 0.836

1.04 (0.74–1.44), 0.828

Hamlet and isolated dwellings

0.91 (0.59–1.42), 0.688

1.18 (0.74–1.88), 0.472

1.44 (0.88–2.34), 0.147

p-value for trend

0.300

0.626

0.220

Geographical regions (ref = London)

North East

1.23 (0.74–2.06), 0.422

1.77 (0.94–3.30), 0.078

1.65 (0.85–3.19), 0.138

North West

1.43 (0.92–2.23), 0.111

1.67 (0.94–2.95), 0.081

1.54 (0.86–2.79), 0.149

Yorkshire and The Humber

1.68 (1.09–2.61), 0.019

2.02 (0.94–2.95), 0.013

1.97 (1.10–3.51), 0.21

East Midlands

1.53 (0.98–2.39), 0.019

1.83 (1.03–3.25), 0.038

1.73 (0.95–3.13), 0.068

West Midlands

1.60 (1.02–2.50), 0.038

2.19 (1.24–3.86), 0.007

2.12 (1.19–3.80), 0.011

East of England

1.27 (0.83–1.95), 0.271

1.57 (0.90–2.74), 0.112

1.53 (0.87–2.72), 0.110

South East

1.27 (0.83–1.98), 0.271

1.52 (0.89–2.62), 0.123

1.48 (0.85–2.56), 0.211

South West

1.74 (1.12–2.70), 0.012

2.35 (1.35–2.94.083), 0.002

2.51 (1.43–4.43), 0.001