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Sociodemographic characteristics
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Age, marital status, cultural background, first language, education, income and housing. Income was defined as pre-tax annual income from all sources of employment including unreported income and excluding any money received from family, friends or income assistance [28].
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Descriptives.
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Psychological resources
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Self-efficacy
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General Self-Efficacy Scale [29]. Likert scale 10 items, e.g., “I am certain that I can accomplish my goals.”
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Higher scores represent higher levels of self-efficacy.
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Mastery
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Pearlin Mastery Scale [30]. Likert scale 7 items, e.g., “I have little control over the things that happened to me.”
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Higher scores represent higher levels of mastery.
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Cognitive ability
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Shipley-II [31]. Vocabulary Subscale 40 items assesses acquired knowledge. Abstraction Subscale 25 items assesses abstract reasoning.
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Higher total raw scores indicate better performance.
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Executive functioning
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Inhibition of interference
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Stroop Colour and Word Test [32]. Cognitive assessment of ability to inhibit interference in the reaction time of a task.
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Higher raw scores represent better cognitive performance.
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Visual attention and task switching
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Trail Making Test [33, 34]. Participants were timed while first sequentially connecting numbered circles (1–2, 2–3, etc.; TMT-A), then lettered and numbered circles (1-A, A-2, 2-B, etc.; TMT-B).
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Shorter times represent better scores. A ratio of TMT-B / TMT-A represents executive control [35].
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Socioeconomic disadvantage
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Having low income
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Pre-tax annual income from all sources of employment including unreported income and excluding any money received from family, friends or income assistance.
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Living on low income at <$20,000 annual employment income.
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Having limited education
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Not completing the equivalent of a BC high school diploma.
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Dichotomous (yes/no) variable.
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Being single (having limited social supports)
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Not married or common-law (living together consecutively for one year or more).
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Dichotomous (yes/no) variable.
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Homelessness
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Living on the streets or in an emergency or homeless shelter, staying in places not meant as residences, (e.g., car or tent), and/or experiencing “hidden homelessness”, (e.g., staying with someone because of no permanent address or having nowhere else to live or “couch-surfing”) [35, 36].
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Dichotomous (yes/no) variable.
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Unstable housing
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Having to move three or more times or experiencing homelessness (past year).
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Dichotomous (yes/no) variable.
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History of child maltreatment
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Child maltreatment age 16 years or younger
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Childhood Trauma Questionnaire – Short Form [37]. Likert scale 28 items, e.g., “When I was growing up, I didn’t have enough to eat.”
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Moderate-to-severe levels of any type of abuse or neglect.
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Exposure to intimate partner violence
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Including physical abuse, emotional abuse and harassment
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Composite Abuse Scale [38]. Likert scale 30 items, e.g., “My partner told me that I wasn’t good enough.” Partner was defined as husband/wife, partner or boy/girlfriend for longer than one month.
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Higher scores indicate higher levels of abuse.
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Mental and physical health
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Psychological distress
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Kessler Psychological Distress Scale [39]. Likert scale 10 items, e.g., “About how often did you feel hopeless?”
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Total scores of > 25 represent moderate-to-severe anxiety or depression.
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Mental and physical health conditions
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Any long-term health conditions diagnosed by a physician affecting day-to-day activities [40, 41].
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Number and type of diagnosed conditions.
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Prenatal substance use
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Nicotine, alcohol, cannabis, and other street drugs
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Frequency of use [42].
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Dichotomous (yes/no) variables.
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Receipt of health and social services
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Health services received for physical concerns
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Visiting primary healthcare providers (family doctors, nurse, and midwives) and receiving prenatal classes.
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Number and type of services.
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Social services received
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Income assistance through provincial or federal programs such as: BC Income and Disability Assistance, Canada Disability Benefits and Employment Insurance, BC Hardship Assistance, and BC Youth Agreements.
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Number and type of services.
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