Risk factors for malnutrition among school-aged children: a cross-sectional study in rural Madagascar

Aiga, Hirotsugu; Abe, Kanae; Andrianome, Vonjy Nirina; Randriamampionona, Emmanuel; Razafinombana, Angèle Razafitompo; Murai, Toshiyasu; Hara, Masahiro

doi:10.1186/s12889-019-7013-9

BMC Public Health

Table 2 Bivariate analyses between schoolchildren’s malnutrition and its categorical background variables

From: Risk factors for malnutrition among school-aged children: a cross-sectional study in rural Madagascar

Background variable	Stunting (N = 393)					Underweight (N = 382)					Thinness (N = 393)
	(+) Stunted		(−) Not stunted		P-value ^a	(+) Under-weight		(−) Not underweight		P-value^a	(+) Thin		(−) Not thin		P-value^a
	n	(%)	N	(%)	P-value ^a	n	(%)	n	(%)	P-value^a	n	(%)	n	(%)	P-value^a
v₁: Sex
Male	75	54.7	135	52.7	0.751	83	57.2	121	51.1	0.247	25	56.8	185	53.0	0.749
Female	62	45.3	121	47.3		62	42.8	116	48.9		19	43.2	164	47.0
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
v₂: Diarrhea during last 14 days
With diarrhea	4	2.9	8	3.1	1.000	5	3.4	7	3.0	0.771	2	4.5	10	2.9	0.632
Without diarrhea	133	97.1	252	96.9		140	96.6	230	97.0		42	95.5	339	97.1
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
v₃: Took deworming tables at school
Took	53	38.7	99	38.7	1.000	63	43.2	85	35.9	0.160	16	36.4	136	39.0	0.870
Did not take	84	61.3	157	61.3		82	56.8	152	64.1		28	63.6	213	61.0
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
Major income sources
Daily job	46	33.6	93	36.7	Ref.	44	30.3	90	37.9	Ref.	16	36.4	122	35.7	Ref.
v₄: Agriculture or crop sales	35	25.5	83	32.4	0.137	42	29.0	73	30.8	0.731	10	22.7	110	30.9	0.299
v₅: Seller, trader or commercial business	23	16.8	22	8.6	0.020*	26	17.9	18	7.6	0.003**	7	15.9	38	10.9	0.317
v₆: Skilled wage labor	9	6.6	19	7.4	0.839	9	6.2	19	8.0	0.551	0	0.0	28	8.0	0.058
v₇: Unskilled wage labor	12	8.8	14	5.5	0.286	11	7.6	15	6.3	0.687	5	11.4	21	6.0	0.193
v₈: Small-scale industry or handicraft	8	5.8	18	6.6	0.831	8	5.5	16	6.8	0.671	5	11.4	20	5.7	0.180
v₉: Livestock or animal sales	1	0.7	4	1.6	0.662	2	1.4	3	1.3	1.000	0	0.0	5	1.4	1.000
v₁₀: Others	3	2.2	3	1.2	0.424	3	2.1	3	1.3	0.678	1	2.3	5	1.4	0.512
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
v₁₁: Land ownership
Own land for housing or farming	101	73.7	207	80.9	0.123	111	76.6	188	79.3	0.526	33	75.0	275	78.8	0.562
Don’t own land for housing or farming	36	26.3	49	19.1		34	23.4	49	20.7		11	25.0	75	21.2
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
Education attainment of household member responsible for food preparation
v₁₂: Never gone to school	6	4.4	9	3.5	0.783	6	4.1	9	3.8	1.000	0	0.0	15	4.3	0.392
Dropped out from primary school	72	52.5	112	44.1	Ref.	70	48.3	107	45.2	Ref.	22	50.0	163	46.7	Ref.
v₁₃: Primary school	49	35.8	100	39.1	0.586	59	40.7	88	37.1	0.516	16	36.4	133	38.1	0.870
v₁₄: Secondary school	8	5.8	29	11.3	0.102	10	6.9	26	11.0	0.210	6	13.6	31	8.9	0.282
v₁₅: High school	2	1.5	4	1.6	1.000	0	0.0	6	2.5	0.087	0	0.0	6	1.7	1.000
v₁₆: University or other higher education	0	0.0	2	0.4	1.000	0	0.0	1	0.4	1.000	0	0.0	1	0.3	1.000
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
v₁₇: Type of source of water
Improved type of source of water ^b	61	44.5	109	42.6	0.749	57	39.3	107	45.1	0.288	19	43.2	151	43.3	1.000
Not improved type of source of water ^c	76	55.5	147	57.4		88	60.7	130	54.9		25	56.8	198	56.7
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
v₁₈: Type of sanitation facility
Improved type of sanitation facility ^d	7	5.1	16	6.3	0.622	7	4.8	16	6.8	0.512	3	6.8	20	5.7	0.733
Not improved type of sanitation facility ^e	132	94.9	240	93.8		138	95.2	221	93.2		41	93.2	329	94.3
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
v₁₉: Hand-washing after toilet of household member responsible for food preparation
Wash hands after toilet	36	26.3	76	29.7	0.558	40	27.6	71	30.0	0.644	17	38.6	95	27.2	0.155
Don’t wash hands after toilet	101	73.7	180	70.3		105	72.4	166	70.0		27	61.4	254	72.8
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
v₂₀: Hand-washing before cooking of household member responsible for food preparation
Wash hands before cooking	33	24.1	66	25.8	0.807	37	25.5	61	25.7	1.000	14	31.8	85	24.4	0.275
Don’t wash hands before cooking	104	75.9	190	74.2		108	74.5	176	74.3		30	68.2	264	75.6
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
v₂₁: Hand-washing before eating
Wash hands before cooking	33	24.1	70	27.3	0.548	36	24.8	66	27.8	0.553	14	31.8	89	25.5	0.367
Don’t wash hands before cooking	104	75.9	186	72.7		109	75.2	171	72.2		30	68.2	260	74.5
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
Rice storage
Plastic/metal container with cover	40	29.2	106	41.3	Ref.	40	27.5	104	43.9	Ref.	13	29.5	133	38.1	Ref.
v₂₂: Plastic/metal container without cover	1	0.7	8	3.1	0.171	3	2.1	5	2.1	1.000	1	2.3	8	2.3	1.000
v₂₃: 50 kg rice bag	32	23.4	45	17.6	0.183	28	19.3	46	19.4	1.000	9	20.5	68	19.5	0.842
v₂₄: Handbasket bag	35	25.5	48	18.8	0.121	38	26.2	42	17.7	0.053	13	29.5	70	20.1	0.169
v₂₅: Plastic bag	19	13.9	24	9.4	0.179	23	15.9	20	8.4	0.030*	5	11.4	38	10.9	1.000
v₂₆: None (buy rice only for the day)	9	6.6	22	8.6	0.599	12	8.3	17	7.2	0.695	3	6.8	28	8.0	1.000
v₂₇: Others	1	0.7	3	1.2	1.000	1	0.7	3	1.3	1.000	0	0.0	4	1.1	1.000
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
Utensil maintenance
v₂₈: In cabinet after cleaning	23	16.8	45	17.6	0.889	23	15.9	44	18.6	0.580	7	15.9	61	17.5	1.000
In open-space after cleaning	69	50.4	123	48.0	Ref.	74	51.0	111	46.8	Ref.	25	56.8	167	47.9	Ref.
v₂₉: Covered with cloth after cleaning	28	20.4	47	18.4	0.686	29	20.0	43	18.1	0.684	10	22.7	65	18.6	0.542
v₃₀: In open-space without cleaning	17	12.4	41	16.0	0.373	19	13.1	39	16.5	0.463	2	4.5	56	16.0	0.042*
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
Meals taken yesterday
Breakfast, lunch and dinner/supper	135	98.6	254	99.2	Ref.	144	99.3	234	98.8	Ref.	44	100	345	98.8	Ref.
v₃₁: Breakfast and lunch	1	0.7	0	0.0	0.349	1	0.7	0	0.0	0.380	0	0.0	1	0.3	1.000
v₃₂: Lunch and dinner/supper	1	0.7	0	0.0	0.349	0	0.0	1	0.4	1.000	0	0.0	1	0.3	1.000
v₃₃: Only breakfast	0	0.0	2	0.8	0.545	0	0.0	2	0.8	0.528	0	0.0	2	0.6	1.000
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
v₃₄: Yesterday’s lunch at school
Had lunch through school feeding program	25	18.2	47	18.4	1.000	24	16.6	47	19.8	0.498	7	15.9	65	18.6	0.836
Did not have lunch at school	113	81.8	209	81.6		121	83.4	190	80.2		37	84.1	284	81.4
Total	137	100	256	100		145	100	237	100		44	100	349	100
Food consumption during last 24 h^f
v₃₅: Cereal	137	100	256	100	(n.a.)	145	100	237	100	(n.a.)	44	100	349	100	(n.a.)
v₃₆: White tubers and roots	57	41.6	97	37.9	0.516	59	40.7	92	38.8	0.747	135	38.7	19	43.2	0.624
v₃₇: Vegetables	130	94.9	246	96.1	0.608	136	93.8	229	96.6	0.209	41	93.2	335	96.0	0.421
v₃₈: Fruits	13	9.5	22	8.6	0.853	14	9.7	20	8.4	0.713	4	9.1	31	3.9	1.000
v₃₉: Meats	38	27.7	82	32.0	0.422	33	22.8	82	34.6	0.016*	106	30.4	14	31.8	0.863
v₄₀: Eggs	10	7.3	34	13.3	0.093	32	13.5	11	7.6	0.095	41	11.7	3	6.8	0.450
v₄₁: Fish and other seafood	27	19.7	54	21.1	0.795	26	17.9	54	22.8	0.300	6	13.6	75	21.5	0.322
v₄₂: Legumes, nuts and seeds	59	43.1	109	42.6	1.000	63	43.4	100	42.2	0.832	20	45.5	148	42.4	0.748
v₄₃: Milk and milk products	10	7.3	37	14.5	0.041*	11	7.6	36	15.2	0.036*	5	11.4	42	12.0	1.000
v₄₄: Oils and fats	134	97.8	247	96.5	0.554	141	97.2	229	96.6	1.000	43	97.7	338	96.8	1.000
v₄₅: Sweets	83	60.6	184	71.9	0.024*	93	64.1	168	70.9	0.176	28	63.6	239	68.5	0.499
v₄₆: Spices, condiments and beverage	135	98.5	256	100	0.121	143	98.6	237	100	0.143	44	100	347	99.4	1.000

*P < 0.05
** P < 0.01
^aChi-square test
^bImproved types of source of water include: (i) piped household water connection; (ii) public standpipe; (iii) protected well/borehole; (iv) Protected spring; and (v) rainwater collection
^cNot improved types of source of water include: (i) unprotected well; (ii) unprotected spring; (iii) surface water (river, lake, reservoir, dam, canal, irrigation channel); (iv) vendor-provided water (cart, tanker truck); and (v) bottled water
^dImproved types of toilet include: (i) flush connected to sewerage system (ii) flush connected to a septic tank; (iii) toilet connected to a pit; (iv) improved ventilated latrine; and (v) latrines with slab
^eNot improved types of toilet include: (i) flush toilet not connected to sewerage/pit; (ii) latrines without slab/open pit; (iii) bucket; (vi) joint installation with other households (public toilet); and (viii) Outdoor defecation (field, forest, bush and river)
^fTwelve categories of foods are based on food groups for calculating Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) [21]

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