Children with access to improved sanitation but not improved water are at lower risk of stunting compared to children without access: a cohort study in Ethiopia, India, Peru, and Vietnam

Table 6 Summary of significant associations of stunting (HAZ < −2) and low BMI (zBMI < −2) with household water and sanitation, Young Lives cohort

			Summary			Country
	Possible Associations	Total Significant Associations	Total Significant Associations, Expected Direction	Total Significant Associations	Total Significant Associations, Expected Direction	Total Significant Associations, Expected Direction (Unadjusted)				Total Significant Associations, Expected Direction (Adjusted)
		Unadjusted	Unadjusted	Adjusted	Adjusted	Ethiopia	India	Peru	Vietnam	Ethiopia	India	Peru	Vietnam
STUNTING
Improved water (age ~1y)	12	10	9	1	0	3	0	3	3	0	0	0	0
Improved water (age ~5y)	8	5	5	1	1	0	2	1	2	0	0	0	1
Improved water (age ~8y)	4	2	2	0	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	0
Total water (all rounds)	24	16	16	4	4	3	2	5	6	0	0	0	4
Improved toilet (age ~1y)	12	12	12	5	5	3	3	3	3	3	2	0	0
Improved toilet (age ~5y)	8	5	4	1	1	0	0	2	2	0	0	0	1
Improved toilet (age ~8y)	4	2	2	0	0	0	1	0	1	0	0	0	0
Total toilet (all rounds)	24	19	18	6	6	3	4	5	6	3	2	0	1
LOW BMI
Improved water (age ~1y	12	3	2	2	1	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	1
Improved water (age ~5y)	8	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0
Improved water (age ~8y)	4	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Total water (all rounds)	24	5	3	2	1	2	0	0	1	1	0	0	1
Improved toilet (age ~1y)	12	4	4	2	2	1	1	0	2	0	0	0	2
Improved toilet (age ~5y)	8	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Improved toilet (age ~8y)	4	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Total toilet (all rounds)	24	4	4	2	2	1	1	0	2	0	0	0	2

This table summarizes findings from Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5 where significant refers to the standard p < 0.05 level. Total Significant Associations in the Expected Direction refers to associations that are in the direction of what is typically hypothesized (e.g., toilet improvements predict reduced stunting). The number of Possible Associations is the same for unadjusted and (separately) adjusted models.

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