Table 4 Characteristics of studies on food and beverages in middle income countries

Musgrove [38] 1990 Brazil

Cross sectional comparison study

Two programmes distributed free foods while another two programmes subsidized four or more basic food stuffs

Infant and child weight for age, weight for height, birth weight

Infant and children, pregnant women and nursing mothers

n = 10,071 families

Pan American Health Organization and Brazilian public agencies

Programmes were observed to be more effective at curing than at preventing malnutrition, and more effective at increasing weight than height.

Up to the end of 1986 the government cost was $767 million

Yes

Weak

1974–1986

Many beneficiaries even when initially underweight, showed no change, and some deteriorated despite the food transfer.

12 years

Sampaio [51] 1991 Recife, Brazil

Controlled before and after study

20 % food -price subsidies for 11 commodities

Consumption of 11 subsidized commodities, percentage of children with low birth weight, children’s nutritional status

Children under 5 years with low birth weight

intervention n = 100, control n = 100

PROAB data

PROAB programme may have small effect on calorie consumption but little or no effect on nutrition status and weight at birth

None recorded

No

Weak

1987

9 years

Osberg [44] 2009 Nine provinces in China

Cross sectional comparison

Food coupons for the purchase of rice, flour, and cooking oil at below market prices. The subsidy rate was 16.5 % of the income of a three person family living at US$ 2 per day.

Height for age

Chinese children aged 2–13 years

1991–1993 n = 1230, 1993 – 1997 n = 638, 1997 – 2000 n = 583

China Health and Nutritional Survey data

Food coupon use in earlier period correlates positively (p < 0.1) with growth in height-for-age.

Poverty was correlated with slower growth in height for age between 1997 and 2000 but not earlier. Poverty was negatively correlated with strong growth in height-for-age in 2000

Yes

Weak

1991–2000

1991–1993 food subsidies were initially in place, 1993–2000 food subsidies had largely been abolished.

10 years

An [39] 2013 South Africa

Cross sectional comparison

Up to 25 % discount on selected food items in about 800 supermarkets

Consumption of healthy foods, BMI

Health insurance plan members

n = 351,319

Health Risk Assessment Survey

A 10 % and 25 % discount on healthy food is associated with: an increase in daily fruits and vegetable consumption by 0.38 (p < 0.001) and 0.64 (p < 0.001) servings respectively; having ≥ 3 servings of wholegrain food daily by 2.05 (p < 0.001) and 2.96 (p < 0.001) respectively; but less likely to regularly have foods high in sugar with an OR of 0.59 (p < 0.001) and 0.26 (p < 0.001), fried foods with an OR of 0.53 (p < 0.001) and 0.26 (p < 0.001), processed meats with an OR of 0.71 (p < 0.001) and 0.33 (p < 001), and fast food with an OR of 0.54 (p < 0.001) and 0.28 (p < 0.001) respectively.

None recorded

Yes

Weak

2009–2011

There was no strong evidence that participation in the Healthy Food Programme reduced BMI but there is a statistically significant (p < 0.001) relationship between 25 % discount on healthy food purchases and obesity with an OR of 0.86 (95 % CI 0.81–0.91).

3 years

Asfar [37] 2007 Egypt

Ecological study 1997 1 year

Food subsidy programme: 57 % for bread; 42–62 % for sugar

Mother’s BMI

Pregnant mothers in Egypt

Individual n = 902, household n = 2000 from 20 governorates.

Egyptian Integrated Household Survey

The subsidy programme pushed people towards obesity.

Cost US$ 1.1 billion in 1997

Yes

Weak

There was an inverse and statistically significant (p < 0.05 %) relationship between mother’s BMI and the price of baladi bread and fully and partially subsidized sugar. There is a direct and statistically significant (p < 0.05 %) relationship between high quality but expensive foods, like fruits, milk and egg and BMI of mothers.