Obesogenic environments: a systematic review of the association between the physical environment and adult weight status, the SPOTLIGHT project

Mackenbach, Joreintje D; Rutter, Harry; Compernolle, Sofie; Glonti, Ketevan; Oppert, Jean-Michel; Charreire, Helene; De Bourdeaudhuij, Ilse; Brug, Johannes; Nijpels, Giel; Lakerveld, Jeroen

doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-233

Table 1 Characteristics of included studies

From: Obesogenic environments: a systematic review of the association between the physical environment and adult weight status, the SPOTLIGHT project

First author	Year	Country	Design†	N	Domain^‡					Main correlates^Ω	O/P^¥measure of PE	M/S^¥weight status	Association^‡			Definition area^§
					PA envir	Food envir	Trans-port	Urban Form	Other				expec-ted	null	unex-pected
Northern America
Ahern [28]	2011	USA	CS	3,128		x				Restaurants and grocery stores	O	S	x			County
Black [29]	2009	USA	LG	48,506	x	x			x	Stores, facilities, crime	O	S	x			Census nbh
Black [30]	2010	USA	CS	9,916	x	x				Food avail, opportunities & barriers to PA	O	S	x		x	Census nbh
Block [31]	2011	USA	LG	3,113		x				Proximity to food establishments	O	M	x	x		Census nbh
Bodea [32]	2009	USA	CS	6,893	x			x		Street connectivity, residential density	O	S	x			1 km buffer
Bodor [33]	2010	USA	CS	3,925	x					Food environment	O	S	x	x		2 km buffer
Brown [34]	2009	USA	CS	5,000	x		x	x		Walkable land use, destinations	O	S	x	x	x	Census block group
Brown [35]	2013	USA	CS	3.528	x					Walkability, bikeability	O	M	x			Census block group
Casagrande [36]	2011	USA	CS	3,493	x					Walkability	O	M		x		Census nbh
Chen [37]	2012	USA	CS	3,550		x				Food outlets	O	S	x	x		0.5 mile buffer
Doyle [38]	2006	USA	CS	9,252	x				x	Walkability, crime	O	M	x			County
Drewnowski [39]	2012	USA	CS	1,682		x				Proximity and price of supermarkets	O	S			x	1 mile distance to supermarket
Eid [40]	2008	USA	CS	5,500				x		Urban sprawl	O	S		x		2 mile radius disc
Ewing [41]	2003	USA	CS	206,992				x		Urban sprawl	O	S	x			County
Frank [42]	2004	USA	CS	10,878	x			x		Land use mix	O	S	x			Block group/square kilometer
Frank [43]	2008	USA	CS	13,065				x		Residential density,, street connectivity, land use mix	O	S	x			1 km distance
Frank [44]	2007	USA	CS	2,056	x					Walkability	O	S	x			Road polygons traveling 1 km from house
Frank [45]	2007	USA	CS	1,228	x					Walkability	O	S	x			1 km network buffer
Frank [46]	2009	USA	CS			x				Food outlet visits, walkability	O	S	x	x		1 km
Gibson [47]	2011	USA	LG	8,100		x				Food environment	O	S	x			ZIP code area
Gregson [48]	2011	USA	CS	14,205		x		x		Sprawl and restaurant types	O	S	x		x	County
Hattori [49]	2013	USA	CS	97,678		x				nbh food outlets	O	S		x		1 mile Euclidian distance
Hoehner [50]	2011	USA	CS	17,000	x					Walkability	O	M	x			Block group
Hutchinson [51]	2012	USA	CS	1,243		x				Availability of healthy & unhealthy foods	O	S	x	x		Census tract
Inagami [52]	2009	USA	CS	2,156		x				Fast food & restaurant concentration	O	S	x			Census tract
James [53]	2012	USA	CS	68,000				x		County sprawl index	O	S	x			County
Jeffery [54]	2006	USA	CS	1,033		x				Proximity of (fastfood) restaurants	O	S		x		0.5 miles, 1 miles and 2 miles from home and work adresses
Jilcott [55]	2010	USA	CS	9,800		x				Food retail gap	O	S	x			County
Keegan [56]	2012	USA	CS	133,000				x	x	Population & housing density, commuting characteristics	O	S		x		Census nbh
Lesser [57]	2013	USA	CS	2,589		x				Outdoor food advertising	O	S	x			Census tract
Lopez [58]	2004	USA	CS	104,084				x		Urban sprawl	O	S	x			Tracts of approx 4000 people
Lopez [59]	2007	USA	CS	15,358	x	x		x	x	Various	O	S	x	x		ZCTA
Lovasi [60]	2009	USA	CS	13,102	x					Walkability	O	M	x			1 km buffer
Lovasi [61]	2012	USA	CS	13,102	x		x		x	Walkability, aesthetics, safety	O	M	x	x	x	1 km buffer
McDonald [62]	2012	USA	CS	690	x					Walkability	O	M		x		Census block group
Mehta [63]	2008	USA	CS	714,054		x				Restaurant mix	O	S	x			County
Mobley [64]	2006	USA	CS	2,692	x	x		x	x	Fitness facilities, food establish-ments, crime	O		x	x		ZIP code areas
Morland [65]	2006	USA	CS	10,763		x				Food stores	O		x			Census tract
Oka [66]	2012	USA	CS	5,485	x	x	x			Various	O	M		x		Census tract
Plantinga [67]	2007	USA	LG	4,700				x		Sprawl	O	S	x			County
Plantinga [68]	2007	USA	CS	3,607				x		Sprawl	O	S		x		County
Rundle [69]	2007	USA	CS	13,102	x		x	x		Land use, bus stop density, pop density, intersection density	O	M	x	x		Census tract area
Rundle [70]	2008	USA	CS	13,102	x	x				Density of BMI-healthy food outlets and walkability	O	M	x	x		805 meter network buffer
Rundle [71]	2009	USA	CS	13,102	x	x				Food environment and walkability	O	M	x	x		Half-mile radius circular buffers
Rundle [72]	2013	USA	CS	13,102	x					Park characteristics	O	M	x	x		Half-mile radius circular buffers
Sallis [73]	2009	USA	CS	2,199	x					Walkability	O	S	x			Block groups
Samimi [74]	2009	USA	CS	300,000			x	x		Transport, land use, built environment	O	S	x			Census tract
Scott [75]	2009	USA	CS	1,750	x			x	x	Safety, des- tina- tions, social fac- tors	O	S	x	x		Urban census tract
Smith [76]	2008	USA	CS	453,927	x					Walkability	O	S	x	x		Census block group
Smith [77]	2011	USA	CS	100,000	x					Walkability	O	S	x	x		Census block group
Wang [78]	2007	USA	CS	7,595		x				Proximity & density of fastfood restaurants & food retail	O	S	x	x		Combination of census tracks and block groups
West [79]	2012	USA	CS	99,534	x					Park(land) area	O	S	x			metropolitan statistical area
Yamada [80]	2011	USA	CS	4,960				x		mixed land use	O	S	x			Block group, tract, 1 km buffer
Zhao [81]	2010	USA	LG					x		Urban sprawl	O	S	x			Census metropolitan areas/county level
Zick [82]	2009	USA	CS	453,927	x	x				Food and PA opportunities	O	S	x	x		Block groups
Zick [83]	2013	USA	CS	35,685	x					Walkability	O	S	x			Census block
Bai [84]	2013	USA	CS	893	x					Park quality	P	S	x	x		Census block within 0.5 miles of park
Catlin [85]	2003	USA	CS	2,821	x	x				Community perceptions, community infrastructure, PA facilities	P	S	x	x		Community
Mujahid [86]	2008	USA	CS	2,865	x	x			x	Neighborhood conditions	P	M	x	x		Census tract
Powell-Wiley [87]	2013	USA	CS	5,907	x	x			x	nbh violence, physical environment, social cohesion	P	M	x	x		Neighborhood
Wilson [88]	2007	USA	CS	1,111	x				x	opportunities for PA and pleasant neighbourhoods	P	S	x	x		Neighborhood and community
Tilt [89]	2007	USA	CS	529	x					greenness, accessibility	O&P	S	x	x		0.4 mile distance
Boehmer [90]	2007	USA	CS	1,032	x		x	x	x	Facilities land use, transportation, aesthetics	O&P	S	x	x	x	400 m radius
Rutt [91]	2005	USA	CS	996	x			x	x	Various	O&P	S		x		1/4 mile radius and 2.5 mile radius
Pendola [92]	2007	USA	CS	670				x	x	Population density, sense of community	O&P	S		x		Census tract
Joshu [93]	2008	USA	CS	1,818				x		Sprawl, urbanization	O&P	S	x			FIPS code
Berry [94]	2010	Canada	CS & LG	572 and 1,164	x					Ease of walking and proximity to outdoor recreation	O	S		x		Census nbh
Spence [95]	2009	Canada	CS	2,900		x				RFEI (retail food environment index)	O	S	x	x		800 m and 1600 m
Pouliou [96]	2010	Canada	CS	115,548	x	x		x		Built environment	O	S	x			Subprovincial scale
Prince [97]	2012	Canada	CS	6,564	x	x			x	Recreation, social, food environment	O	S	x	x		Neighborhoods based on natural barriers?
Prince [98]	2011	Canada	CS	5,025	x	x			x	Recreation, social, food environment	O	S	x	x		Neighborhoods based on natural barriers?
Ross [99]	2007	Canada	CS	33,000				x	x	Dwelling density, sprawl, immigration	O	S	x	x		Census tract area
Kestens [100]	2012	Canada	CS	5,578		x				Food environment	O	S	x	x		Census nbh
Berry [101]	2010	Canada	CS & LG	500	x					Perceptions of neighbourhood	O&P	S		x		Census nbh
Australasia
Garden [102]	2008	Australia	CS	7,290				x		Urban sprawl	O	S	x			Local government area
Pearce [103]	2009	New Zealand	CS	12,529		x				distance to fastfood outlet	O	M		x	x	meshblock neighbourhoods
Richardson [104]	2013	New Zealand	CS	8,157	x					Urban green space	O	M		x		Census area unit
Christian [105]	2011	Australia	CS	1,151	x	x				Built & social environment	O&P	S	x	x		1.6 km road network service area
Gebel [106]	2011	Australia	LG	1,027	x			x		Walkability, dwelling density, land use mix	O&P	S	x	x		Census collector district
Giles-Corti [107]	2003	Australia	CS	1,803	x					Physical environment	O&P	S	x			Collector districts
Europe
Ball [108]	2012	UK	CS	1,062	x					Street connectivity	O	S			x	Datazone
Van Dyck [109]	2010	Belgium	CS	1,200	x					Walkability	O	S		x		Statistical sectors
Santana [110]	2009	Portugal	CS	7,669	x	x		x	x	Environmental disadvantages & opportunities	O	S	x	x		Neighbourhood?
Ellaway [111]	2005	Europe	CS	6,919	x				x	Graffiti, greenery	O	S	x			immediate residential environment
Macdonald [112]	2011	UK	CS	991		x				Distance to food stores	O	S		x	x	500 and 1000 meter
Leal [113]	2012	France	CS	7,230				x	x	Sociodemographic factors, physical factors, service-related, social-interactional environment	O	M	x	x		500 m radius/TRIRIS geographic unit
Burgoine [114]	2011	UK	CS	893		x		x		Residential density, street connectivity, land use mix	O	S	x	x		LSOA/MSOA
Coombes [115]	2010	UK	CS	6,821	x					Green space	O	S	x			Not applicable (distance)/800 meter
Cummins [116]	2012	UK	CS	79,136	x					Percentage greenspace	O	S		x	x	MSOA
Poortinga [117]	2006	UK	CS	14,836				x	x	Friendliness, trust, social capital, access	P	M	x	x		Postcode sectors
Toftager [118]	2011	Denmark	CS	21,832	x					Distance to green space	P	S	x			Not applicable (distance)
Nielsen [119]	2007	Denmark	CS	2,000	x					Perceptions of distance to garden/green area	P	S	x			Not applicable (distance)

† CS = cross-sectional, LG = longitudinal.
‡ x = association was statistically significant in this direction.
¥ Measures of the Physical Environment (PE): O = objective, P = perceived. Measures of weight status: M = objectively measured, S = self-reported.
Ω PA = physical activity, nbh = neighbourhood.
§ nbh = neighbourhood, km = kilometer, m = meter, LSOA/MSOA = lower/middle statistical output area, ZCTA = Zip Code Tabulation Area.

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ISSN: 1471-2458

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