Table 1 Summary of included studies

Middle East

Tamim 2003 [23]

Parents of school students (mean age 13,52% males); N = 625

Waterpipe only: 9%

Lebanon, 2000

Cigarettes & waterpipe: 18%

Bachir 2008 [39]

Pregnant women delivering in hospitals (mean age 28); N = 934

Life time: 12%

Lebanon, 1997-1998

During pregnancy: 6%

Riachy 2008 [63]

General population; N = 37579

Waterpipe only: 4%

Lebanon, 2003-2005

More than one form: 20%

Chaaya 2004 [22]

Sophomore university students (52% males); N = 416

Current: 28%

Lebanon

Ex smokers: 15%

Chaaya 2004 [41]

Pregnant women in primary care clinics (mean age 27); N = 864

Before pregnancy: 7%

Lebanon, 2003

During pregnancy: 4%

Zoughaib 2004 [17]

Teenage students (mean age 16; 57% males); N = 1461

Ever: 66%

Lebanon, 2002

Regular: 24%

Chaaya 2003 [40]

Pregnant women delivering in hospitals (mean age 28.1); N = 576

Ever: 18%

Lebanon, 2000

During pregnancy: 6%

Baddoura 2001 [33]

Lebanese adults (M/F ratio 0.95; mean age 40); N = 727

Current: 15%

Lebanon, 1997

Daily: 9%

Tamim 2007 [16, 18]

School students (45% males; mean age 15); N = 2443

Current: 26%

Lebanon, 2002-2003

Ever: 65%

Tamim 2003 [23]

University students (mean age 21; 41% males); N = 1964

Waterpipe only: 21.1%

Lebanon, 2000-2001

Cigarettes & waterpipe: 11%

Al-Haddad 2003[21]

Secondary school boys (mean age 16.5); N = 600

Waterpipe: 13%

Bahrain

Memon 2000[34]

Government employees; N = 3859

Ever: 63% (men 57%; women

Kuwait, 1996

69%)

Behbehani 2004 [36]

Physicians (65% males; mean age 45); N = 1529

Kuwait: 12% (M: 17%; F: 3%)

Kuwait, Bahrain, 2000

Bahrain: 6% (M: 9%; F: 3%)

Taha 2007 [19]

Male students (mean age 17) N = 1240; male teachers (mean age 35); N = 142

Students: current 9%, former 4%; Teachers: current 4%, former 1%

Saudi Arabia, 2001

AL-Turki 2006 [24] Saudi Arabia, 2005

Male medical students (mean age 21.8); N = 322

Ever: 8%

Milaat 1999 [35]

Female teaching staff and employees (age range 23-62); N = 299

Current: 11%

Saudi Arabia

Mandil 2007 [25]

Students in 13 colleges (39% males; mean age 21); N = 1057

Overall: 6% (M 11%; F 3%)

UAE, 2004-2005

Al-Mulla 2008 [20]

School students with ages 13-15; N = 32356

Bahrain: 15%, Kuwait: 16%, Oman: 9%, Qatar: 14%, Saudi Arabia: 10%, UAE: 15%, Yemen: 15%

Arabic Gulf, 2001-2004

Ward 2006 [37] Syria, 2004

Adults residing in Aleppo (45% men; mean age 35); N = 2038

Current: 12% Occasionally 11%

Maziak 2005 [38] Syria

Adults residing in Aleppo (46% males; mean age 34);

Overall (current): 9.1% (male: 16%, female: 4%)

N = 1021

Maziak 2004 [9, 26–28]

Aleppo University students (47% males; mean age 22); N = 587

Current: 15% (M 26%, F 5%)

Syria, 2003

Ever: 46% (M 62.6%, F 230%)

Gadalla 2003 [29]

Students of secondary schools in villages; N = 627

Lifetime: 19% (M: 26%, F: 5%)

Egypt, 2002/03

Habib 2000 [30]

Males in households of a village; N = 1827

Group water pipe smoking: (males only) 10.6%

Egypt, 1997

El Sadawy 2004[31]

Males in household in Sharkia Governorate; N = 782

Group water pipe smoking (males only): 14.6%

Egypt

Medhat 2002 [32]

Male village inhabitants 5 years and older; N = 2717

Group water pipe smoking: 13% (> 30 years: 7%)

Egypt

South Asia

Jawaid 2008 [42]

University students, Karachi (60% males; mean age 21); N = 450

Current: 33%

Pakistan, 2006-2007

Ever: 54% (M 64%; F 38%)

Nisar 2007 [44]

Adults living in semi urban community (64% males); N = 157

Overall: 13%

Pakistan, 2005

Nisar 2005 [43]

Adult females in Karachi; N = 200

Overall: 41%

Pakistan

Alam 1998 [45]

Adults (in urban and rural areas (47%males); N = 9441

Overall: 6% (M 7%; F6%)

Pakistan, 1990-1994

Primack 2008 [50]

University studeents (mean age 21; 34% males); N = 647

Past 30 days: 10%

USA, 2007

Ever: 41%

Weglicki 2008 [46, 47]

Arab-American and non-Arab-American youth (14-18); N = 1872

Arabs (current): 17%

USA, 2004-2005

Non Arabs (current): 11%

Rice 2007 [48]

Arab and non-Arab Americans (mean age 15; 55% M); N = 1455

Arab: last 30 days 12%; regular 8%; Other: last 30 days 4%, regular 3%

USA

Rice 2006 [11]

Adolescents (mean age 15, 52% males); N = 1671

Experimentation: 27%

USA, 2001/02

Ever by age 14: 23%

Ever by age 18: 40%

Ward 2006 [51]

Active duty Air Force personnel; N = 20,673

Overall: 0.3%

USA, 2000 - 2002

Americas

Primack 2009 [49]

School students (48% males; median age 14); N = 6,594

Past 30 days: 4%

USA, 2004/05

Ever: 6%

Europe

Jackson 2008 [12]

University students (42% males); N = 937

Ever: 38%

United Kingdom

Regular: 8%

Parna 2008 [52]

11-15 year old school students (50% males); N = 4463

Current: 21% (M 25%; F 16%)

Estonia, 2006-2007

Daily: 0.8% (M 1% F 0.3%)

Australia

Carroll 2008 [13, 53]

Arabic speakers in Australia; N not reported

Current: 11%

Australia, 2004

Daily: 1%