Fig. 3

Wealth disparities in cognitive development

The comparisons were between the first and the fifth quintiles. Step 1 was adjusted for maternal ethnicity, child age, and child sex. Other steps adjusted for the controlled variables in step 1 and types of preconception supplementation. Cognitive development at 6-7y models also adjusted for wealth residual at 6-7y. Maternal factors including education, IQ, and depression

Statistical significance from multivariable linear regression in each step comparing difference in outcomes between the lowest and highest wealth quintiles: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001

FSIQ: Full-Scale Intelligence Quotient; HAZ: Height-for-age-z-scores; SD: Standard deviation