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Table 3 Sexual stigma manifestations arranged by form of stigma and distribution across multiple socioecological levels

From: Multi-level manifestations of sexual stigma among men with same-gender sexual experience in Ghana

Forms

Socioecological Levels

Community

Institution

Peers

Family

Self

Perceived

GO

GO, NV, VA, BS, PQ

--

--

--

Enacted

BS, GO, NV, PA, VA

BS, GO, NV, PQ

GO, BS, VA

BS, GO, VA, PA

--

Internalized

IC, CF

CF

IC

--

BS, IC, VA

Anticipated

CF, GO, PA, VA

CF, GO, NV, PQ, VA

CF

--

--

  1. Note: Empty cells do not indicate a finding of the absence of stigma at these levels. Instead, participants did not explicitly mention sexual stigma manifestations occurring at that level.
  2. Note BS = social, cultural and religious blaming and shaming. CF = living in constant fear and stigma avoidance. GO = gossiping and outing. IC = internal conflict and guilt about sexual behavior. NV = non-verbal judgmental gestures. PA = physical abuse. PQ = poor-quality services. VA = verbal abuse and intrusive questioning.
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BMC Public Health

ISSN: 1471-2458

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