Table 2 Distribution of sexual stigma manifestation occurrences across socioecological levels

Social, cultural, and religious blaming and shaming

X

X

X

X

X

Verbal abuse and intrusive questioning

X

X

X

X

X

Gossiping and outing

X

X

X

X

Physical abuse

X

X

X

Internal conflict and guilt about sexual behavior

X

X

X

Non-verbal judgmental gestures

X

X

Living in constant fear and stigma avoidance

X

X

Poor-quality services

X