Table 3 Direct effects of GSEM predicting adverse birth outcomes (LBW, SGA and PB) among infants from MACE birth cohort

Prenatal exposure to air pollution

 PM2.5 (μg/m³)

1.3(1.02, 1.42)*

1.2(1.21, 1.28)***

1.2(1.09, 1.29)***

 NOx (μg/m³)

0.9 (0.92,0.95) **

0.9(0.93,0.95)**

0.98(0.96, 0.99)*

 SO₂ (μg/m³)

1.1(0.94, 1..31)

1.1(1.01, 1..13)*

1.2(0.87, 1.59)

Clinical factors

 Gestational weight gain (kg)

0.9(0.94,1.03)

1.0(0.95, 1.03)

0.98(0.97, 0.99)***

 BMI T1 (kg/m²)

0.9(0.92, 0.97)***

0.9(0.91, 0.95)***

0.94(0.93, 0.95)***

 Syphilis positive

1.0(0.73, 1.39)

0.9(0.58, 1.59)

____

HIV positive

____

____

1.3(1.17, 1.35)***

Behavioural factors

 Smoker

0.7 (0.37, 1.36)

____

1.9(1.27, 2.89)**

 Alcohol use

1.5(0.69, 3.19)

1.4(0.59, 3.48)

0.7(0.50, 1.09)

Low socio-economic factors

 Primary or less education

1.1(0.56, 2.12)

____

2.7(1.15, 6.17)*

 Low annual income (less than US$2000)

1.0(0.47, 2.25)

____

1.0(0.55, 1.72)

 Low SE Housing (Informal or Flat, terraced flat, apartment building)

1.7(1.61, 1.85)**

____

____

 Unemployment

____

____

1.7(0.72, 3.97)

 Physical exercise (at least once in a week)

____

0.01(-0.51, 0.02)

____

 Female gender

0.87 (0.51, 1.51)

0.9(0.86, 0.89)***

1.0(0.86, 1.14)