Mapping and analysis of laws influencing built environments for walking and cycling in Australia

Nau, Tracy; Perry, Sean; Giles-Corti, Billie; Bellew, William; Bauman, Adrian; Smith, Ben J.

doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14897-w

BMC Public Health

Table 3 Comparability to recommended built environment standards and criteria for active living

From: Mapping and analysis of laws influencing built environments for walking and cycling in Australia

	Recommended standard (where available)	NSW	VIC	TAS	WA	SA	NT	ACT	QLD
Minimum density targets
Residential density
12.1a) Specifies target in terms of gross density		^✪	^⊠	^⊠	NA	NA	^□	NA	NA
12.1b) Minimum density target is ≥ 25 dwellings per hectare		^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	NA	NA	^□	NA	NA
Residential density near activity centres							^□
13.1a) Specifies target in terms of gross density		NA	^⊠	^⊠	^✪	^⊠	^□	NA	NA
13.1b) Minimum density target is ≥ 25 dwellings per hectare		NA	^✪	^✪	^□	^✪	^⊠	NA	NA
Residential density near public transit
14.1a) Specifies target in terms of gross density		NA	^⊠	^⊠	NA	^⊠	^□	NA	NA
14.1b) Minimum density target is ≥ 25 dwellings per hectare		NA	^✪	^✪	NA	^✪	^⊠	NA	NA
*Planning law contains a minimum density target that meets the recommended standard*^a	≥25 gross dwellings per hectare (Urban Liveability Checklist)	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	No
Activity centres
Location of homes from activity centres
15.1) Distance ≤ 800m		NA	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	NA
15.3) Specifies a % target of homes within ≤ 800m of an activity centre		NA	^○	^⊠	^□	^○	^⊠	^⊠	NA
15.3.1) Percentage target is ≥ 80%		NA	^✪	NA	NA	^□	NA	NA	NA
*Planning law contains an activity centre accessibility target that meets the recommended standard*^b	≥ 80% of dwellings within 800m of a neighbourhood activity centre (Urban Liveability Checklist)	No	Yes	Partly	Partly	Partly	Partly	Partly	No
Walkable catchment for activity centres
16) Specifies a walkable catchment area for activity centres		^✪	^□	^⊠	^○	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠
16.1) Pedshed ≥ 0.60		^✪	NA	NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA
*Planning law contains a walkable catchment target for activity centres that meets the recommended standard*^c	Pedshed ≥ 0.60, calculated as the ratio of area within 800m street network buffer to the area within an 800m Euclidian (as the crow flies) buffer around a neighbourhood activity centre (Urban Liveability Checklist)	Yes	No	No	Yes	No	No	No	No
Promotion of active frontage in activity centres
24) Expressly promotes active frontage in activity centres		^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^○	^✪	^⊠
Crime prevention through environmental design features
24.1a) Non-residential ground floor use		^✪	^✪	◊	^✪	^✪	◊	^✪	NA
24.1b) Limits to blank walls		^✪	◊	^✪	^✪	◊	^✪	◊	NA
24.1c) Transparency of window coverings, fencing		◊	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	◊	NA
24.1d) Coverage of windows, entrances or shopfronts		◊	◊	^✪	◊	^✪	◊	◊	NA
24.1e) Limits to height of fences or walls		◊	^✪	^✪	◊	◊	◊	◊	NA
Minimising conflict with vehicles
24.1f) Parking away from street frontage		^✪	^✪	^✪	◊	^✪	◊	^✪	NA
24.1g) Limits to services at street level		◊	^✪	◊	^✪	◊	^✪	◊	NA
Convenience, comfort and interest
24.1h) Direct pedestrian access		^✪	^✪	^✪	◊	^✪	^✪	◊	NA
24.1i) Provision of awnings/shelter		^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	◊	NA
24.1j) Limits to building setbacks		^✪	◊	◊	◊	◊	◊	◊	NA
24.1k) Alfresco dining		◊	◊	◊	◊	^✪	^✪	◊	NA
*Strength of legal support for promoting active frontage in activity centres*^d		Strong	Strong	Strong	Strong	Strong	Strong	Partial	Weak
Access to public open space
Availability of distance standards for the location of homes from public open space
17.1a) For local/neighbourhood parks		^□	^✪	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^✪	^✪	^✪
17.1b) For active open space		^⊠	^✪	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠
17.1c) For linear park/open space corridor		^⊠	^✪	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠
17.1d) For district parks		^□	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^□
17.1e) For district sport precincts		^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^□
17.1f) For regional/metropolitan parks		^□	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠
17.1g) For regional/metropolitan sporting precincts		^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠
17.1h) For public open space generally		^✪	^○	^⊠	^⊠	^✪	^✪	^⊠	^✪
Local/neighbourhood park
17.2) Location of homes ≤ 400m from a local/neighbourhood park		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	^✪	^✪	^✪
17.2.2) ≥ 80% of homes within the specified distance of a local/neighbourhood park		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA	^✪	NA
17.3) Specifies a minimum size dimension for a local/neighbourhood park		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	^⊠	^⊠	^□
17.3.1) Minimum size dimension of local/neighbourhood park ≥ 1.5ha		NA	^□	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
17.4) Specifies other design criteria for local/neighbourhood parks		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	^⊠	^✪	^□
Active open space
17.5) Location of homes ≤ 400m from active open space		NA	^⊠	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
17.5.2) ≥ 80% of homes within the specified distance of active open space		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
17.6) Specifies a minimum size dimension for active open space		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
17.6.1) Minimum size dimension for active open space ≥ 1.5ha		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
17.7) Specifies other design criteria for active open space		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Linear parks/trails
17.8) Location of homes ≤ 400m from linear parks/trails		NA	^⊠	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
17.8.2) ≥ 80% of homes within the specified distance of linear parks/trails		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
17.9) Specifies other design criteria for linear parks/trails		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Public open space
17.22) Location of homes within ≤ 400m from public open space		^✪	^⊠	NA	NA	^✪	^✪	NA	^✪
17.22.2) ≥ 80% of homes within specified distance of public open space		^✪	^✪	NA	NA	^□	NA	NA	NA
17.23) Specifies a minimum size dimension for public open space		^⊠	^✪	NA	NA	^✪	^⊠	NA	^⊠
17.23.1) Minimum size dimension of public open space ≥ 1.5ha		NA	^⊠	NA	NA	^⊠	NA	NA	NA
17.24) Specifies other design criteria for public open space		^□	^✪	NA	NA	^✪	^⊠	NA	^⊠
*Planning law contains an accessibility target for public open space that meets the recommended standard*^e	≥ 80% of dwellings ≤ 400m of ≥ 1.5 ha of open space (Urban Liveability Checklist)	Partly	Partly	No	No	Partly	Partly	Partly	Partly
Schools
18.1) Location of homes ≤ 800m from a government primary school		NA	^✪	NA	NA	^⊠	^✪	NA	NA
18.3) ≥ 80% of dwellings within the specified distance of a government primary school		NA	^⊠	NA	NA	^□	NA	NA	NA
*Planning law contains an accessibility target for primary schools that meets the recommended standard*^f	≥ 80% of dwellings ≤ 800m from a government primary school (Urban Liveability Checklist)	No	Partly	No	No	No	Partly	No	No
Public transport
Access to bus services
19.1a) Location of homes ≤ 400m from a bus stop		^✪	^✪	NA	NA	^✪	^✪	^□	NA
19.1.2a) Target of ≥ 80% homes within the specified distance of bus services		NA	^✪	NA	NA	^□	NA	^✪	NA
19.1.4a) Frequency of bus services specified, at least every 30 mins		^✪	NA	NA	NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA
Train services
19.1b) Location of homes ≤ 800m from a train stop		^○	^✪	NA	NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA
19.1.2b) Target of ≥ 80% homes within the specified distance of train services		NA	^✪	NA	NA	^□	NA	NA	NA
19.1.4b) Frequency of train services specified, at least every 30 mins		^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Tram services
19.1c) Location of homes ≤ 600m from a tram stop		NA	^✪	NA	NA	^⊠	NA	NA	NA
19.1.2c) Target of ≥ 80% homes within the specified distance of tram services		NA	^✪	NA	NA	^□	NA	NA	NA
19.1.4c) Frequency of tram services specified, at least every 30 mins		NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA
Public transport generally
19.1d) Location of homes ≤ 400m of a public transport stop		NA	^✪	^⊠	NA	^✪	^✪	NA	NA
19.1.2d) Target of ≥ 80% homes within the specified distance of public transport		NA	^✪	NA	NA	^□	NA	NA	NA
19.1.4d) Frequency of public transport services specified, at least every 30 mins		NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	^⊠	NA	NA
*Planning law contains an accessibility target for public transport that meets the recommended standard*^g	80% of dwellings located within at least one of: • ≤ 400m from a bus stop with a scheduled service every 30 mins 7am-7pm on a normal weekday • ≤ 600m from a tram stop with a scheduled service every 30 mins 7am-7pm on a normal weekday • ≤ 800m from a train stop with a scheduled service every 30 mins 7am-7pm on a normal weekday (Urban Liveability Checklist)	Partly	Partly	No	No	Partly	Partly	Partly	No
Demand management
20a) Specifies a maximum car parking rate		^□	^□	^✪	^○	^✪	^⊠	^○	^⊠
20b) Specifies a minimum car parking rate		^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^□
20.1) Where a minimum car parking rate is set, allows for reduction of this provision		^○	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	NA
*Strength of legal support for discouraging car usage*^h		Partial	Partial	Strong	Strong	Strong	Partial	Strong	Weak
Bicycle infrastructure
Bicycle parking
21) Sets standards for the provision of bicycle parking		^□	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪
21.1.1a) Bicycle parking for residential		NA	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪	◊
21.1.1b) Bicycle parking for education		NA	^✪	^✪	◊	^✪	◊	^✪	^✪
21.1.1c) Bicycle parking for retail		NA	^✪	^✪	◊	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪
21.1.1d) Bicycle parking for offices		NA	^✪	^✪	◊	^✪	^✪	^✪	^✪
21.1.1e) Bicycle parking for healthcare		NA	^✪	^✪	◊	^✪	◊	^✪	^✪
21.1.1f) Bicycle parking for sport and recreation		NA	^✪	^○	◊	^✪	◊	◊	◊
21.1.1g) Bicycle parking for public transport		NA	◊	^○	◊	◊	◊	◊	◊
End-of-trip facilities (EoT) (lockers and/or showers)
21.1a) Sets standards for the provision of showers		^□	^✪	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^✪	^○	^✪
21.1b) Sets standards for the provision of lockers		^□	^✪	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^✪	^✪	^✪
21.1.2a) EoT for residential		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	^✪	^✪	◊
21.1.2b) EoT for education		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	◊	^✪	^✪
21.1.2c) EoT for retail		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	^✪	^✪	^✪
21.1.2d) EoT for offices		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	^✪	^✪	^✪
21.1.2e) EoT for healthcare		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	◊	^✪	^✪
21.1.2f) EoT for sport and recreation		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	◊	◊	◊
Bicycle paths
21.1) Sets standards for the provision of bicycle paths		^⊠	^✪	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠
*Strength of legal support for bicycle infrastructure*ⁱ		Weak	Strong	Partial	Partial	Partial	Partial	Partial	Partial
Street blocks and footpaths
Street blocks
22.1.1) Specifies a block length, where upper limit is ≤150m		NA	^⊠	NA	^⊠	NA	NA	NA	^□
22.1.3) Specifies a block width, where upper limit is ≤150m		NA	^✪	NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA
22.1.5) Specifies a block perimeter ≤ 600m		NA	^✪	NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA
*Planning law contains street block standards that meet recommendation*^j	Blockfaces of 110m or less; blocks should not exceed 150m (ITDP guidance)	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	No	No	No
Footpaths
23.1a) Standards address width of footpath		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	◊
23.1b) Standards specify the sides of the street where footpath is required		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	^✪
23.1c) Standards require increased footpath provision near schools, shops or transit		NA	^✪	NA	NA	NA	NA	NA	◊
*Strength of legal support for footpath provision*^k		Weak	Strong	Weak	Weak	Weak	Weak	Weak	Partial
Urban greening
Provision of trees
25.1a) Standards address spacing of trees		NA	^✪	NA	◊	^✪	◊	NA	^✪
25.1b) Standards address placement of trees		NA	◊	NA	^✪	◊	^✪	NA	^✪
25.1c) Standards address size of trees		NA	^✪	NA	^✪	^✪	◊	NA	◊
25.1d) Standards address canopy cover of trees		NA	◊	NA	^✪	^✪	◊	NA	◊
25.1e) Standards address number of trees		NA	^✪	NA	^✪	^✪	^✪	NA	^✪
Private open space for gardens, planting, soft landscaping
26.1a) Standards expressed as minimum % site for planting		^✪	NA	◊	^✪	^✪	◊	^○	NA
26.1b) Standards expressed as minimum dimensions for planting		^✪	NA	^○	^✪	^✪	^✪	◊	NA
26.1c) Standards expressed as maximum % site coverage for buildings		◊	NA	^✪	◊	◊	◊	◊	NA
Tree canopy cover
27) Specifies a % target for increasing tree canopy cover		^□	^✪	^⊠	^⊠	^✪	^⊠	^⊠	^⊠
*Strength of legal support for urban greening*^l		Weak	Partial	Weak	Partial	Strong	Partial	Weak	Weak
Overall assessment
Standards meeting recommendations
Overall number of standards Meeting recommendations (out of 7 available)^m		1	2	0	2	0	0	0	0
Overall number of standards Partly meeting recommendations (out of 7 available)		2	3	1	1	3	4	3	1
Overall number of standards Not meeting recommendations (including where not addressed) (out of 7 available)		4	2	6	4	4	3	4	6
Extent of legal support for other categoriesⁿ
Overall number of categories with Strong legal support (out of 5 categories)		1	3	2	2	3	1	1	0
Overall number of categories with Partial legal support (out of 5 categories)		1	2	1	2	1	3	2	2
Overall number of categories with Weak legal support (out of 5 categories)		3	0	2	1	1	1	2	3

^✪Yes
^○Yes with caution note
^⊠No
^□No with caution note
NA Not applicable, because this question was conditional on satisfying an affirmative answer to the preceding parent question
◊Not selected as a response option (a different option/s selected instead)
NSW New South Wales, VIC Victoria, TAS Tasmania, WA Western Australia, SA South Australia, NT Northern Territory, ACT Australian Capital Territory, QLD Queensland
Urban Liveability Checklist is the ‘The Healthy Liveable Communities Urban Liveability Checklist’ developed by RMIT University in 2019; ITDP guidance refers to the recommendations set out in the ‘Pedestrians First’ tool developed by the Institute for Transportation & Development Policy) in 2018
^aMinimum density target classified as Yes (meeting the recommended standard) if Yes to 12.1a and 12.1b, 13.1a and 13.1b, and/or 14.1a and 14.1b (i.e. density target was a gross measure and ≥ 25 dwellings per hectare). Classified as No (not meeting) if the density target was not expressed as a gross measure, even if it was ≥ 25 dwellings per hectare
^bActivity centre accessibility target classified as Yes (meeting the recommended standard) if Yes to 15.1 and 15.3.1 (i.e. ≥ 80% of dwellings within 800 m of any type of activity centre); Partly meeting if Yes to 15.1 but No/NA to 15.3.1 (i.e. meets the distance standard but not the percentage of dwellings component). Classified as No (not meeting) if NA/No to 15.1 and 15.3.1
^cWalkable catchment target classified as Yes (meeting the recommended standard) if Yes to 16 and 16.1. Classified as No (not meeting) if No/NA to 16 and 16.1. Note that the radius used by NSW and WA was generally ≤ 400 m (i.e. less than the 800 m specified in the recommended standard, although WA used 800 m for strategic centres)
^dStrength of legal support for active frontage in activity centres classified as Strong if the jurisdiction addressed at least one of the design features in each category (i.e. crime prevention through environmental design features (24.1a-e); minimising conflict with vehicles (24.1f-g); convenience, comfort and interest (24.1 h-k)); Partial if it addressed one or two of the categories; Weak if it did not expressly address active frontage in activity centres (i.e. No to 24)
^ePublic open space accessibility target classified as Yes if meeting all elements of the recommended standard (i.e. percentage (≥ 80% dwellings), distance (≤ 400 m) and size of open space (≥ 1.5 ha)); Partly if meeting at least one of the three elements; and No if it did not have any distance standards for the location of homes from public open space
^fPrimary school accessibility target classified as Yes if meeting all elements of the recommended standard (i.e. Yes to 18.3 (≥ 80% dwellings) and Yes to 18.1 (distance ≤ 800 m); Partly if Yes to 18.1 only; No if NA to 18.1 (i.e. did not have any distance standards for the location of homes from a primary school)
^gPublic transport accessibility target classified as Yes if meeting all elements of the recommended standard for at least one form of public transport (i.e. percentage (≥ 80% dwellings), distance (≤ 400 m from bus stop; ≤ 600 m from tram stop; ≤ 800 m from train stop) and frequency (at least every 30 min)); Partly if meeting at least one of the elements for at least one form of public transport; No if not addressing or meeting any of the elements of the recommended standard for any form of public transport
^hStrength of legal support for discouraging car usage classified as Strong if Yes to 20a (i.e. specifies a maximum rate); Partial if No to 20a but Yes to 20.1 (i.e. no maximum rate but allows for reduction of minimum car parking rate); Weak if neither was addressed
ⁱStrength of legal support for bicycle infrastructure classified as Strong if Yes to 21, 21.1a, 21.1b and 21.1 (i.e. sets standards for bicycle parking, end-of-trip facilities, and bicycle paths); Partial if only sets standards for bicycle parking and/or end-of-trip facilities; Weak if it did not address any of these standards
^jStreet block standards classified as meeting recommendation if Yes to 22.1.5 (perimeter of ≤ 600 m was considered to be equivalent to the ITDP recommendation of blocks not exceeding 150 m); and/or Yes to both 22.1.1 and 22.1.3 (i.e. meeting the recommendations for block length and width)
^kStrength of legal support for footpath provision classified as Strong if Yes to 23.1a-c (i.e. addressing width, sides and increased provision near schools, shops or transit); Partial if addressing one or two of these elements (i.e. Yes to one or two out of 23.1a-c); Weak if not addressing any of these elements for footpath provision
^lStrength of legal support for urban greening classified as Strong if addressing at least one aspect of each of the three categories (i.e. Yes to any of 25.1a-e (provision of trees); Yes to any of 26.1a-c (private open space); and Yes to 27 (tree canopy cover)); Partial if addressing two out of the three categories; Weak if addressing one of the three categories or none at all
^mThe standards with recommendations are for: residential density (12.1–14.1), activity centre accessibility (15.1–15.3.1), walkable catchment area for activity centres (16–16.1), public open space accessibility (17.1a-17.24), primary school accessibility (18.1, 18.3), public transport accessibility (19.1a-19.1.4c), street block size (22.1.1–22.1.5)
ⁿExtent of legal support are for: promoting active frontage in activity centres (24–24.1 k), demand management (20a-20.1), bicycle infrastructure (21–21.1), footpath provision (23.1a-c), and urban greening (25.1a-27)

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