Table 1 Compilation of the included articles

Bonyani, A., Safaeian, L., Chehrazi, M., Etedali, A., Zaghian, M., & Mashhadian, F. (2018). A high school-based education concerning drug abuse prevention. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 7(1), 88.

To investigate the effectiveness of four educational methods on knowledge attitude and skills toward drug use.

Poster, leaflets

Video

Lectures on life skills; training on drug abuse prevention; self-confidence skills; decision-making skills; cognitive skills; self-control skills; strategies for relieving stress and anxiety; social resistance skills.

Youth involvement

Youth were involved in the pre-test, the pretest, and the evaluation of the programs.

The outcome of the intervention:

Change of attitudes toward drug abuse and addiction

Hecht, M. L., Corman, S. R., & Miller-Rassulo, M. (1993). An Evaluation of the Drug Resistance Project: A Comparison of Film Versus Live Performance Media. Health Communication, 5(2), 75–88.

To explore the effect of posttraining discussion on the effectiveness of film and live performance training media

Film/video and live performance

Performance modalities and one discussion agenda on drug resistance strategy; use of lived experiences, interviews and curriculum implementation on substance use prevention

.

Youth involvement

Youth validate the script and the approach used in the intervention.

The outcome of the intervention:

Change of attitude towards drug abuse; decreased perceived norms on drug use; belief in the ability to resist peer pressure

Polansky, J. M. (1994). Common and specific effects of substance-abuse-prevention videotapes on Mexican-American adolescents [Arizona]. https://www.proquest.com/docview/304122405?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true

To provide the practitioner community with efficacy data, and the research community with information on whether any emerging treatment effects were consistent with the underlying intervention theory implicit in each video program.

Videotapes

A 10-item

achievement test reflecting drug Knowledge was derived from the content of the information programming video. A similar 10-item Help Seeking questionnaire was constructed to reflect one’s disposition to select socially appropriate responses modelled in the help-seeking video.

Youth involvement

Teens participated in experiments and finished all questionnaires.

The outcome of the intervention:

Increasing knowledge, helping skills and assertiveness to resist peer pressure

Development/ reinforcement of conservative attitudes towards drugs and unwillingness to consume drugs

Warren, J. R., Hecht, M. L., Wagstaff, D. A., Elek, E., Ndiaye, K., Dustman, P., & Marsiglia, F. F. (2006). Communicating Prevention: The Effects of the keepin’ it REAL Classroom Videotapes and Televised PSAs on Middle-School Students’ Substance Use. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 34(2), 209–227. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909880600574153

To determine if exposure to two communication-oriented activities, videotapes and public service announcements, accounts for changes in substance use among adolescents participating in the Drug Resistance Strategies Project’s keepin’ it REAL adolescent substance use prevention curriculum.

Videotapes and televised series

Intervention emphasized REAL – Refuse, explain, avoid and leave.

The curriculum comprised 10 lessons five of which entail forming video tapes. Other strategies used were billboards, televised PSAs and in-school booster sessions.

Youth involvement

School teachers and teens helped project staff to develop a 10-lesson curriculum. With the help of teachers, students developed education videotapes.

The outcome of the intervention:

Participation in the study reduced the amount and frequency of marijuana and alcohol use

Stanley, L. R., Kelly, K. J., Swaim, R. C., & Jackman, D. (2018). Cultural Adaptation of the Be Under Your Own Influence Media Campaign for Middle-School American Indian Youth. Journal of Health Communication, 23(12), 1017–1025. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2018.1536730

Using Be Under Your Own Influence (BUYOI) to prevent substance use among American Indian youth

Photovoice

15 students participated in a focus group to understand reservation life and BUYOI materials.

Youth involvement

High school role models conducted photovoice.

The outcome of the intervention:

Reinforcing cultural identity and aspiration was protective against substance use

Duncan, T. E., Duncan, S. C., Beauchamp, N., Wells, J., & Ary, D. V. (2000). Development and evaluation of an interactive CD-ROM refusal skills program to prevent youth substance use: “refuse to use”. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 23(1), 59–72. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1005420304147

To provide materials that would extend

and amplify the impact of traditional educational programs offered through

the home, school, and other social organizations (e.g., health departments,

religious organizations).

CD-ROM/Video

Focus groups and questionnaires

Youth involvement

The youth was involved in providing information for the videotapes and providing feedback for the intervention.

The outcome of the intervention:

Personal efficacy to refuse an offer of marijuana

Intention to refuse marijuana if offered

Understanding social norms and respecting one’s decision to refuse a drug offer

Williams, C., Griffin, K. W., Macaulay, A. P., West, T. L., & Gronewold, E. (2005). Efficacy of a Drug Prevention CD-ROM Intervention for Adolescents. Substance Use & Misuse, 40(6), 869–878. https://doi.org/10.1081/JA-200042219

To examine the efficacy of substance abuse–

preventive intervention using CD-ROM technology among adolescents in the sixth and

seventh grade (12- to 13 years old).

CD-ROM

Students were required to complete the LST C D-ROM program within 6 weeks.

Youth involvement

Students provided information for the pre-test and post-test, and parents signed the informed consent.

The outcome of the intervention:

Reduction in pro-drug attitudes

Increased knowledge of relaxation skills, anxiety reduction skills,

Increased knowledge of drugs

Hardoff, D., Stoffman, N., & Ziv, A. (2013). Empowering adolescents to control alcohol-associated risky situations. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 98(9), 672–675. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2013-303994

To describe and evaluate an experiential project which aims to augment existing alcohol high school educational programmes.

Lecture, enacted scenario and movie

A brief introductory lecture regarding alcoholic beverages, the immediate and late effects of alcohol, and legal regulations regarding blood alcohol levels and driving were provided. Two scenarios are enacted, one with a risky alcohol use scenario and the other one with the right response when in an environment where alcohol is used.

A presentation of a movie regarding the consequences of alcohol use

Emergency room scenario of a 16-year-old brought to the ER after a night of drinking

Youth involvement

Youth attended a presentation by a person injured while driving under the influence of alcohol.

The outcome of the intervention:

Increased knowledge of the consequences of alcohol consumption

Increased inclination to behavioural change

Shin, Y., Miller-Day, M., Hecht, M. L., & Krieger, J. L. (2018). Entertainment–Education Videos as a Persuasive Tool in the Substance Use Prevention Intervention “keepin’ it REAL”. Health Communication, 33(7), 896–906. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2017.1321163

Evaluating the effects of entertainment education on adolescents’ alcohol prevention.

Video

Introductory video of REAL- Refuse, Explain, Avoid and Leave curriculum.

Youth involvement

The video was produced and performed by high school students targeting middle school children. Aimed to teach resistance skills and change norms.

The outcome of the intervention:

Improved refusal self-efficacy which was inversely related to alcohol use behaviour

Identification with the main character and resonating cultural context was associated with refusal of self-efficacy

Quek, L.-H., White, A., Low, C., Brown, J., Dalton, N., Dow, D., & Connor, J. P. (2012). Good choices, great future: An applied theatre prevention program to reduce alcohol-related risky behaviours during Schoolies. Drug and Alcohol Review, 31(7), 897–902. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2012.00453.x

To investigate the

effectiveness of Choices in reducing risky drinking,

illicit drug use and problem behaviours (e.g. driving

under the influence, arguments) during Schoolies.

Theatre/live acting

50 min theatre prevention program by CQCM students. Aimed to encourage students to make better choices and how they party and behave during the Schoolies.

Safety messages include- alcohol and illicit drug use, seeking help, safe sex, drunk driving, liquor licence, policing services, and looking after mates. Safety messages embedded within skits, contemporary pop culture and music.

Youth involvement

Students were given opportunities to interact and clarify issues raised by the program.

The outcome of the intervention:

The Choices program reduced the risk of illicit drug use

Turner-Musa, J. O., Rhodes, W. A., Harper, P. T. H., & Quinton, S. L. (2008). Hip-Hop to Prevent Substance Use and HIV among African American Youth: A Preliminary Investigation. Journal of Drug Education, 38(4), 351–365. https://doi.org/10.2190/DE.38.4.c

To examine the efficacy of a hip-hop

based substance use and HIV prevention intervention that targets African-

American middle-school youth.

Live action

An 88-item survey was used for the pre-test and post-test. was administered to all program participants.

Youth involvement

Youth finished pre-test surveys and provided feedback via post-test. Parents signed the informed consent.

The outcome of the intervention:

Hip-hop can be an effective way to prevent risky behaviours, and participants have more perception of the dangers of substance use. A larger sample size could have yielded a significant difference between the study groups.

Duncan, L. R., Hieftje, K. D., Pendergrass, T. M., Sawyer, B. G., & Fiellin, L. E. (2018). Preliminary investigation of a videogame prototype for cigarette and marijuana prevention in adolescents. Substance Abuse, 39(3), 275–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/08897077.2018.1437862

To determine the preliminary efficacy of smokeSCREEN by exploring changes in knowledge, self-efficacy, attitudes, perceived norms, and intentions related to the use of cigarettes and marijuana as well as evaluate the overall experience of participants’ gameplay.

Videogame, named smokeSCREEN, contains avatars for players to choose from and decisions related to cigarettes and marijuana for them to make to get grades and social points. The video game involves cognitive and motivational variables to influence players’ thinking.

Participants played a smokeSCREEN, for one hour, twice a week. Pre and post-game assessment of knowledge, self-efficacy, attitudes, perceived norms, and intentions.

Youth involvement

Participants finished pre-test surveys and post-test evaluations.

The outcome of the intervention:

The way knowledge about the effects of smoking and marijuana has an impact on the intention to use them. Video games turned out to be cognitively and motivationally impactful.

13–14

Duryea, E. J. (1983). Utilizing tenets of inoculation theory to develop and evaluate a preventive alcohol education intervention. The Journal of School Health, 53(4), 250–256. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.1983.tb01139.x

Duryea, E., Mohr, P., Newman, I. M., Martin, G. L., & Egwaoje, E. (1984). Six-Month Follow-up Results of a Preventive Alcohol Education Intervention. Journal of Drug Education, 14(2), 97–104. https://doi.org/10.2190/5WR2-WTBY-C74F-LEFQ

1. To gain insight into questions surrounding inoculation-based

Interventions and assess the

extent to which the theory and specific variations of it

are effective in meeting the objectives of a preventive

alcohol education intervention.

2. To describe the long-term (6-month) effects of a high school (9th grade)

alcohol education program designed to increase knowledge of alcohol’s effects

upon performance, increase the ability of students to refute selected persuasive

pro-drinking and driving arguments, and decrease the likelihood of complying

with pressure to participate in risky alcohol-related situations.

Role-playing and slide show presentation

experiments, presentation. The Solomon Four-Group Design,

Youth participated in the project and provided feedback for initiative post-tests and six-month follow-up evaluations.

The outcome of the intervention

Preventive alcohol education programs are feasible and productive in schools. The project contained 4 parts: film, question and answer, role-playing exercises, and slide presentations. The movie provides information; the question and answer part allowed instructors to go through the main content of the movie; the role-playing enables students to be placed in alcohol-related situations and learn how to refuse the invitation of using substances from friends, adults, siblings and peers. During each role-playing, teachers also provided feedback to students. The presentations helped students renew and reinforce their knowledge.

van Leeuwen, L., Renes, R. J., & Leeuwis, C. (2013). Televised Entertainment-Education to Prevent Adolescent Alcohol Use. Health Education & Behavior, 40(2), 193–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198112445906

To determine whether entertainment education (E-E) is a successful strategy for high school students and what processes

may be involved.

TV

11 single-story televised episodes which are small movies with the storyline, characters, settings, themes and look and feel. 7 episodes were about alcohol, and the rest focus on cannabis, XTC, cocaine and multi-substance use.

Youth provided information for five online surveys, both pre-test and post-test.

The outcome of the intervention

Entertainment education (E-E) is an effective interventional strategy to decrease substance use behaviour among adolescents.

Huang, S. F., Zheng, W. L., Liao, J. Y., Huang, C. M., Lin, T. Y., & Guo, J. L. (2018). The effectiveness of a theory-based drama intervention in preventing illegal drug use among students aged 14–15 years in Taiwan. Health Education Journal, 77(4), 470–481. https://doi.org/10.1177/0017896918768647

To assess the effectiveness of a theory of planned behaviour (TPB)-based

drama intervention for preventing drug use among young people aged 14–15 years.

Drama/Acting

Six 45 min sessions implemented over 6 weeks. Each session started with a warm-up activity, drama activity, conclusion and reflection. A conventional educational course was also included in the intervention- a 45-minute session on illegal drug prevention.

Students were involved in the projects and provided feedback for the intervention.

The outcome of the intervention

Change in subjective norms, attitudes, PBC and CI. Provided with life skills that helped them connect with the real world through role-play, and increased their self-efficacy in substance refusal skills

Safer, L. A., & Harding, C. G. (1993). Under pressure program: using live theatre to investigate adolescents’ attitudes and behaviour related to drug and alcohol abuse education and prevention. Adolescence, 28(109), 135–148. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8456602

To describe the Under Pressure Program, an innovative communication-centred approach designed to involve Chicago public junior and senior high school students in considering the problems and prevention of adolescent substance abuse.

Theatre: a 30-minute musical play: Captain Clean

Participants were divided into the experimental group and the control group. Then, participants finished the pre-test and pro-test via a 20-item Likert scale about attitudes toward substance use.

Students participated in the whole project and provided information via discussion, pre-test and post-test. The Loyola University Center for Children and Families provided information for Parents and community stakeholders regarding the project, potential students’ needs and students’ reactions before the play and postperformance discussion among students.

The outcome of the intervention

Live theatre is a creative way for teachers to provide substance-using prevention information. Students watched the musical play, and then, participated in the postperformance group discussion by identifying characters and discussing characters’ points of view. Students felt empathy towards characters and realized the harms of substance use.

Harding, C. G., Safer, L. A., Kavanagh, J., Bania, R., Carty, H., Lisnov, L., & Wysockey, K. (1996). Using live theatre combined with role-playing and discussion to examine what at-risk adolescents think about substance abuse, its consequences, and prevention. Adolescence, 31(124), 783–796. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8970653

Examine what at-risk adolescents think about substance abuse, consequences and prevention via live theatre.

Theatre: a 30-minute musical play: Captain Clean; role-playing

Quantitative (

questionnaire), qualitative (observation) and anecdotal methods.

Students attended a performance, and post-performance discussion, and finished post-test questionnaires.

The outcome of the intervention

After the intervention, students requested individual counselling to address drug abuse in their own lives or family

The use of theatre, role play and discussion overcame barriers that inhibit effective communication between adults and youth.

Drug refusal skills

de Visser, R. O., Graber, R., Hart, A., Abraham, C., Scanlon, T., Watten, P., & Memon, A. (2015). Using qualitative methods within a mixed-methods approach to developing and evaluating interventions to address harmful alcohol use among young people. Health Psychology, 34(4), 349–360. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000163

To illustrate how multiple qualitative methods can be

combined and used within a resilience framework to develop and evaluate strengths-based

behaviour change interventions to prevent harmful alcohol use among young people.

Sweet spot video

Survey; Interviews; focus group.

A video-based resource was developed to promote responsible drinking among young people. Meant to illustrate a successful alcohol management strategy. Aim- to prompt individuals and groups to think critically about personal and social expectations and practices related to alcohol use

Youth participated in the project, providing feedback during 1 and 2, and that feedback influences the development of phases 2 and 3. Students provided information for phrase 4, the evaluation of the intervention.

The outcome of the intervention

Active engagement of young people, using peers as opinion leaders and models and encouraging young people to think critically about their behaviour.