Prevalence, pattern, and predictors of formal help-seeking for intimate partner violence against women: findings from India’s cross-sectional National Family Health Surveys-3 (2005–2006) and 4 (2015–2016)

Kanougiya, Suman; Sivakami, Muthusamy; Daruwalla, Nayreen; Osrin, David

doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14650-3

Table 4 Univariable and multivariable logistic regression models for help-seeking, by source of help for intimate partner violence (IPV) in the past 12 months. NFHS-3 (2005–2006) and NFHS-4 (2015–2016), India

From: Prevalence, pattern, and predictors of formal help-seeking for intimate partner violence against women: findings from India’s cross-sectional National Family Health Surveys-3 (2005–2006) and 4 (2015–2016)

Any help
	NFHS-3 (2005–2006)						NFHS-4 (2015–2016)
	OR	[95% CI]	P-value	aOR	[95% CI]	P-value	OR	[95% CI]	P-value	aOR	[95% CI]	P-value
Marital status
Currently married	1			1			1			1
Widowed/Separated/Divorced	2.9	[2.6, 3.2]	0.000	2.6	[2.2, 2.9]	0.000	2.4	[2.1, 2.8]	0.000	2.2	[1.9, 2.5]	0.000
Age (Years)
15–24	1			1			1			1
25–34	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.003	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.047	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.158	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.607
35–49	1.2	[1.1, 1.3]	0.000	1.1	[1.0, 1.3]	0.047	1.1	[1.0, 1.3]	0.047	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.658
Number of living children
0	1			1			1			1
1	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.127	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.097	0.8	[0.7, 1.0]	0.012	0.8	[0.7, 1.0]	0.029
2	0.9	[0.8, 1.1]	0.295	0.9	[0.8, 1.1]	0.380	0.8	[0.7, 1.0]	0.012	0.8	[0.7, 1.0]	0.065
3+	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.037	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.053	0.8	[0.7, 0.9]	0.006	0.9	[0.7, 1.0]	0.089
Education
No education	1			1			1			1
Primary	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.007	1.2	[1.1, 1.3]	0.001	1.1	[0.9, 1.2]	0.310	1.1	[0.9, 1.2]	0.395
Secondary	1.1	[1.0, 1.1]	0.138	1.3	[1.1, 1.4]	0.000	1.0	[1.0, 1.1]	0.343	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.202
Higher	0.9	[0.7, 1.1]	0.246	1.3	[1.0, 1.7]	0.054	1.3	[1.1, 1.5]	0.010	1.3	[1.0, 1.6]	0.050
Women’s employment
Not working	1			1			1			1
Currently working	1.3	[1.2, 1.4]	0.000	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.003	1.4	[1.3, 1.5]	0.000	1.2	[1.1, 1.4]	0.000
Husband’s education
No education	1			1			1			1
Primary	1.0	[0.9, 1.0]	0.279	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.177	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.684	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.561
Secondary	0.9	[0.9, 1.0]	0.047	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.018	1.0	[0.9, 1.1]	0.591	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.583
Higher	0.7	[0.6, 0.8]	0.000	0.7	[0.6, 0.8]	0.000	1.1	[0.9, 1.3]	0.261	1.1	[0.9, 1.4]	0.380
Husband’s occupation
Not employed	1			1			1			1
Non-agricultural	0.7	[0.6, 0.9]	0.009	0.8	[0.6, 1.0]	0.061	1.0	[0.8, 1.2]	0.749	1.0	[0.8, 1.2]	0.667
Agricultural	0.7	[0.6, 0.9]	0.010	0.8	[0.6, 1.0]	0.035	0.9	[0.8, 1.1]	0.473	1.0	[0.8, 1.3]	0.972
Skilled and unskilled manual	0.8	[0.7, 1.0]	0.088	0.8	[0.6, 1.0]	0.071	1.2	[1.0, 1.5]	0.118	1.2	[1.0, 1.6]	0.053
Husband uses alcohol/drug
No	1			1			1			1
Yes	1.7	[1.6, 1.9]	0.000	1.7	[1.6, 1.8]	0.000	1.7	[1.6, 1.9]	0.000	1.7	[1.6, 1.9]	0.000
Residence
Urban	1			1			1			1
Rural	1.0	[0.9, 1.1]	0.931	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.014	0.9	[0.9, 1.0]	0.130	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.073
Caste
Scheduled caste	1			1			1			1
Scheduled tribe	0.8	[0.7, 0.9]	0.000	0.7	[0.6, 0.8]	0.000	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.050	0.8	[0.7, 1.0]	0.015
Other backward caste	1.0	[0.9, 1.0]	0.370	1.0	[0.9, 1.1]	0.981	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.012	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.089
General caste	0.7	[0.7, 08]	0.000	0.7	[0.7, 0.8]	0.000	0.9	[0.8, 1.1]	0.380	0.9	[0.8, 1.1]	0.459
Religion
Hindu	1			1			1			1
Muslim	0.9	[0.9, 10]	0.005	1.2	[1.1, 1.4]	0.001	0.9	[0.8, 1.1]	0.383	1.1	[0.9, 1.3]	0.265
Other	1.1	[1.1, 12]	0.085	1.1	[1.0, 1.3]	0.038	1.1	[1.0, 1.3]	0.080	1.0	[0.8, 1.2]	0.833
Wealth quintile
Poorest	1			1			1			1
Poorer	1.1	[1.1, 12]	0.117	1.1	[0.9, 1.2]	0.343	1.0	[0.8, 1.1]	0.386	0.9	[0.8, 1.1]	0.384
Middle	1.1	[1.1, 12]	0.032	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.119	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.522	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.581
Richer	1.0	[1.0, 11]	0.438	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.847	1.1	[0.9, 1.2]	0.258	1.1	[0.9, 1.3]	0.288
Richest	1.0	[1.0, 11]	0.490	1.0	[0.8, 1.2]	0.982	1.2	[1.0, 1.4]	0.009	1.3	[1.1, 1.6]	0.007
Woman justifies spousal violence
No	1			1			1			1
Yes	0.9	[0.8, 0.9]	0.003	0.9	[0.8, 0.9]	0.001	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.005	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.033
Informal help
	NFHS-3 (2005–2006)						NFHS-4 (2015–2016)
	OR	[95% CI]	P-value	aOR	[95% CI]	P-value	OR	[95% CI]	P-value	aOR	[95% CI]	P-value
Marital status
Currently married	1			1			1			1
Widowed/Separated/Divorced	2.7	[2.4, 3.1]	0.000	2.4	[2.1, 2.8]	0.000	2.3	[2.0, 2.7]	0.000	2.1	[1.8, 2.5]	0.000
Age (Years)
15–24	1			1			1			1
25–34	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.004	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.061	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.196	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.899
35–49	1.2	[1.1, 1.3]	0.000	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.096	1.1	[1.0, 1.3]	0.097	1.0	[0.8, 1.2]	0.908
Number of living children
0	1			1			1			1
1	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.073	0.9	[0.7, 1.0]	0.053	0.8	[0.7, 1.0]	0.020	0.8	[0.7, 1.0]	0.051
2	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.224	0.9	[0.8, 1.1]	0.309	0.8	[0.7, 1.0]	0.022	0.9	[0.7, 1.0]	0.126
3+	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.025	0.9	[0.7, 1.0]	0.036	0.8	[0.7, 1.0]	0.011	0.9	[0.7, 1.0]	0.144
Education
No education	1			1			1			1
Primary	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.016	1.2	[1.1, 1.3]	0.003	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.558	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.695
Secondary	1.1	[1.0, 1.1]	0.167	1.2	[1.1, 1.4]	0.000	1.0	[0.9, 1.1]	0.710	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.614
Higher	0.9	[0.7, 1.1]	0.286	1.3	[1.0, 1.7]	0.045	1.3	[1.1, 1.5]	0.014	1.3	[1.0, 1.6]	0.059
Women’s employment
Not working	1			1			1			1
Currently working	1.3	[1.2, 1.3]	0.000	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.004	1.3	[1.2, 1.5]	0.000	1.2	[1.1, 1.4]	0.000
Husband’s education
No education	1			1			1			1
Primary	1.0	[0.9, 1.0]	0.354	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.232	1.0	[0.9, 1.1]	0.959	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.717
Secondary	0.9	[0.9, 1.0]	0.053	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.021	1.0	[0.9, 1.1]	0.620	1.1	[0.9, 1.2]	0.438
Higher	0.7	[0.6, 0.8]	0.000	0.7	[0.6, 0.8]	0.000	1.1	[0.9, 1.3]	0.330	1.1	[0.9, 1.4]	0.383
Husband’s occupation
Not employed	1			1			1			1
Non-agricultural	0.7	[0.6, 0.9]	0.006	0.8	[0.6, 1.0]	0.041	1.0	[0.8, 1.2]	0.882	1.0	[0.8, 1.2]	0.833
Agricultural	0.7	[0.6, 0.9]	0.009	0.8	[0.6, 1.0]	0.028	1.0	[0.8, 1.2]	0.721	1.0	[0.8, 1.3]	0.675
Skilled and unskilled manual	0.8	[0.7, 1.0]	0.067	0.8	[0.6, 1.0]	0.052	1.2	[1.0, 1.5]	0.090	1.3	[1.0, 1.6]	0.038
Husband uses alcohol/drug
No	1			1			1			1
Yes	1.7	[1.6, 1.8]	0.000	1.7	[1.6, 1.8]	0.000	1.7	[1.6, 1.9]	0.000	1.7	[1.6, 1.9]	0.000
Residence
Urban	1			1			1			1
Rural	1.0	[0.9, 1.1]	0.710	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.011	1.0	[0.9, 1.0]	0.283	1.1	[1.0, 1.3]	0.044
Caste
Scheduled caste	1			1			1			1
Scheduled tribe	0.8	[0.7, 0.9]	0.000	0.7	[0.6, 0.8]	0.000	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.104	0.8	[0.7, 1.0]	0.022
Other backward caste	1.0	[0.9, 1.1]	0.591	1.0	[0.9, 1.1]	0.723	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.028	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.152
General caste	0.8	[0.7, 0.8]	0.000	0.7	[0.7, 0.8]	0.000	1.0	[0.8, 1.1]	0.655	1.0	[0.8, 1.1]	0.729
Religion
Hindu	1			1			1			1
Muslim	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.004	1.2	[1.1, 1.4]	0.001	1.0	[0.8, 1.1]	0.588	1.1	[0.9, 1.3]	0.197
Other	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.070	1.1	[1.0, 1.3]	0.038	1.1	[1.0, 1.3]	0.057	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.976
Wealth quintile
Poorest	1			1			1			1
Poorer	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.136	1.1	[0.9, 1.2]	0.323	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.135	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.168
Middle	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.044	1.1	[1.0, 1.2]	0.095	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.687	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.623
Richer	1.0	[0.9, 1.1]	0.632	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.853	1.1	[0.9, 1.2]	0.313	1.1	[0.9, 1.3]	0.233
Richest	1.0	[0.9, 1.1]	0.511	1.0	[0.9, 1.2]	0.865	1.2	[1.0, 1.4]	0.016	1.3	[1.1, 1.6]	0.007
Woman justifies spousal violence
No	1			1			1			1
Yes	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.006	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.001	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.006	0.9	[0.8, 1.0]	0.040
Formal Help
	NFHS-3 (2005–2006)						NFHS-4 (2015–2016)
	OR	[95% CI]	P-value	aOR	[95% CI]	P-value	OR	[95% CI]	P-value	aOR	[95% CI]	P-value
Marital status
Currently married	1			1			1			1
Widowed/Separated/Divorced	6.4	[6.4, 8.3]	0.000	4.9	[3.6, 6.7]	0.000	5.2	[3.8, 7.1]	0.000	3.7	[2.5,5.3]	0.000
Age (Years)
15–24	1			1			1			1
25–34	1.6	[1.6, 2.3]	0.020	1.6	[1.0, 2.4]	0.046	1.5	[0.9, 2.4]	0.101	2.0	[1.2,3.5]	0.014
35–49	2.2	[2.2, 3.2]	0.000	2.0	[1.3, 3.2]	0.003	1.9	[1.2, 3.0]	0.007	2.5	[1.4,4.5]	0.002
Number of living children
0	1			1			1			1
1	2.0	[2.0, 3.5]	0.016	2.2	[1.2, 4.2]	0.011	0.5	[0.3, 0.9]	0.021	0.6	[0.3,1.0]	0.040
2	1.5	[1.5, 2.6]	0.118	1.7	[0.9, 3.2]	0.086	0.6	[0.4, 0.9]	0.028	0.6	[0.4,1.0]	0.037
3+	1.1	[1.1, 1.9]	0.695	1.4	[0.8, 2.6]	0.285	0.5	[0.3, 0.8]	0.001	0.5	[0.3,0.9]	0.016
Education
No education	1			1			1			1
Primary	1.7	[1.7, 2.3]	0.001	1.8	[1.2, 2.5]	0.002	1.6	[1.1, 2.3]	0.021	1.7	[1.1,2.6]	0.025
Secondary	1.6	[1.6, 2.1]	0.003	1.8	[1.2, 2.6]	0.002	1.7	[1.3, 2.4]	0.001	2.4	[1.6,3.6]	0.000
Higher	2.0	[2.0, 3.8]	0.027	2.4	[1.1, 5.4]	0.029	1.5	[0.8, 2.9]	0.182	1.7	[0.7,3.9]	0.233
Women’s employment
Not working	1			1			1			1
Currently working	1.6	[1.6, 2.1]	0.000	1.2	[0.9, 1.6]	0.148	2.0	[1.5, 2.6]	0.000	1.7	[1.2,2.3]	0.001
Husband’s education
No education	1			1			1			1
Primary	1.1	[1.1, 1.6]	0.620	1.1	[0.7, 1.6]	0.779	1.5	[1.0, 2.2]	0.051	1.4	[0.9,2.1]	0.140
Secondary	1.2	[1.2, 1.6]	0.211	1.1	[0.7, 1.5]	0.725	1.1	[0.8, 1.5]	0.631	0.9	[0.6,1.4]	0.701
Higher	1.0	[1.0, 1.7]	0.996	0.8	[0.4, 1.5]	0.453	1.0	[0.6, 1.9]	0.882	0.9	[0.4,1.9]	0.824
Husband’s occupation
Not employed	1			1			1			1
Non-agricultural	0.6	[0.6, 1.2]	0.175	0.7	[0.3, 1.4]	0.287	1.0	[0.5, 2.0]	0.906	0.9	[0.4,1.9]	0.773
Agricultural	0.4	[0.4, 0.8]	0.008	0.5	[0.2, 1.0]	0.056	0.8	[0.4, 1.7]	0.586	0.9	[0.4,1.8]	0.669
Skilled and unskilled manual	0.6	[0.6, 1.1]	0.076	0.5	[0.3, 1.1]	0.080	1.3	[0.7, 2.6]	0.439	1.2	[0.6,2.5]	0.545
Husband uses alcohol/drug
No	1			1			1			1
Yes	2.1	[2.1, 2.8]	0.000	1.9	[1.4, 2.6]	0.000	2.5	[1.8, 3.3]	0.000	2.3	[1.7,3.2]	0.000
Residence
Urban	1			1			1			1
Rural	0.7	[0.7, 0.9]	0.008	1.0	[0.8, 1.4]	0.801	0.7	[0.5, 0.9]	0.011	0.9	[0.7,1.3]	0.721
Caste
Scheduled caste	1			1			1			1
Scheduled tribe	0.4	[0.4, 0.6]	0.000	0.3	[0.2, 0.6]	0.000	0.6	[0.4, 1.0]	0.040	0.7	[0.4,1.1]	0.100
Other backward caste	0.7	[0.7, 1.0]	0.059	0.7	[0.5, 1.0]	0.052	0.7	[0.5, 1.0]	0.055	0.7	[0.5,1.0]	0.080
General caste	0.9	[0.9, 1.2]	0.508	0.7	[0.5, 1.0]	0.090	0.6	[0.4, 1.0]	0.037	0.6	[0.3,0.9]	0.025
Religion
Hindu	1			1			1			1
Muslim	1.0	[1.0, 1.5]	0.809	1.6	[1.0, 2.4]	0.034	0.9	[0.6, 1.4]	0.587	1.2	[0.7,2.2]	0.488
Other	0.7	[0.7, 1.1]	0.126	0.8	[0.5, 1.4]	0.462	0.9	[0.6, 1.5]	0.732	0.7	[0.4,1.2]	0.237
Wealth quintile
Poorest	1			1			1			1
Poorer	1.1	[1.1, 1.7]	0.496	0.8	[0.5, 1.3]	0.361	1.3	[0.9, 1.9]	0.159	1.1	[0.7,1.7]	0.659
Middle	1.2	[1.2, 1.8]	0.295	0.8	[0.5, 1.2]	0.235	1.1	[0.8, 1.7]	0.538	0.9	[0.6,1.4]	0.617
Richer	1.4	[1.4, 2.0]	0.107	0.7	[0.4, 1.1]	0.142	1.4	[0.9, 2.2]	0.091	1.1	[0.6,1.8]	0.792
Richest	1.3	[1.3, 2.0]	0.199	0.6	[0.3, 1.1]	0.098	1.5	[0.9, 2.3]	0.114	1.3	[0.7,2.4]	0.426
Woman justifies spousal violence
No	1			1			1			1
Yes	0.6	[0.6, 0.8]	0.000	0.7	[0.5, 0.9]	0.005	0.8	[0.6, 1.1]	0.115	0.8	[0.6,1.1]	0.133

NFHS National Family Health Survey, India, CI 95% confidence interval, OR Crude odds ratio, aOR Adjusted odds ratio with covariates summarized in Table 4

Back to article page

ISSN: 1471-2458

Contact us

Submission enquiries: bmcpublichealth@biomedcentral.com
General enquiries: ORSupport@springernature.com

BMC Public Health

Contact us