Table 1 Characteristics and Findings of Included Studies
Author, Year | Study Design | Setting | Intervention | Sample size, population | Data Collection Period and Source | Racial or Ethnic Identities | Comparator | Outcome | Findings | Quality |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Financial Policies | ||||||||||
Averett, 2012 [39] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Expansion of Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) | N = 12,686, Low-to-moderate income mothers | 1992–1998, National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 Cohort | Stratified analysis: Black, Hispanic, White | Before and after expansion of EITC | Smoking status | No statistically significant difference in smoking status for Black or Hispanic mothers. | Moderate |
Balan-Cohen, 2008 [40] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Old Age Assistance (OAA) | Total sample size NR; low-income seniors | 1927–1955; Vital Statistics Reports | Stratified analysis: Black, White | Non-recipients of OAA | Mortality from treatable illnesses, behavioral causes and cardiovascular disease | Reduced mortality for Black (12%) and White (17%) in non-Southern States. Statistical difference not evaluated. No statistically significant difference in mortality in Southern States. | Moderate |
Braga, 2020 [41] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Earned Income Tax Credit during childhood | N = 2393, children of low-to-moderate income workers | 1968–2017, Panel Study of Income Dynamics | Stratified analysis: Black, Hispanic, other races, White | Differing EITC levels across States | Self-reported overall health, obesity, high blood pressure, functional limitations, emotional problems during adulthood | No statistically significant differences in self-reported health outcomes for Black, Hispanic or other races for different EITC levels. | Moderate |
Bruckner, 2013 [42] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Earned Income Tax Credit | N = 259,480, low-to-moderate income pregnant mothers | 1989–1997, California Birth Files | Stratified analysis: Black, White | Non-recipients of EITC | Very low birthweight (< 1500 g) among live singleton births | Odds of very low birthweight increased for Black women when EITC received within 2 months of delivery (OR 1.31, 95%CI 1.09, 1.58). No statistically significant differences for White women or when EITC received earlier in pregnancy. | Moderate |
Cloud, 2019 [43] | Quasi-experimental | USA | State-level minimum wage policies | N = 73 Metropolitan Statistical Areas, each with population > 500,000 residents | 2007–2015, CDC HIV name-based reporting system and USA Census Bureau | Primary population: Black | Before and after minimum wage increase | Annual incidence of HIV diagnoses in heterosexual individuals | Metropolitan Statistical Areas with a $1.00 higher minimum wage had a 27.12% (95% CI 18.06, 35.18) lower rate of incident HIV cases in heterosexual Black individuals. | Moderate |
Goldstein, 2020 [44] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Government expenditure on non-healthcare services | Total sample size NR; infants and mothers | 2000–2016, US National Center for Health Statistics | Stratified analysis: Black, Hispanic, Asian, White | Differing levels of state and local government expenditures across States | Infant mortality | No significant difference in the change in infant mortality per increase in government spending for infants born to mothers of different races. | Moderate |
Hoynes, 2015 [45] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Earned Income Tax Credit | N = 17,865, low-to-moderate income pregnant women | 1983–1999, Vital Statistics Reports | Stratified analysis: Black, Hispanic, White | Before and after expansion of EITC | Birthweight, low birthweight (< 2500 g) | Reduction in low birthweight incidence for Black women (0.73%, p < 0.01). | Moderate |
Jagannathan, 2010 [46] | RCT | USA | New Jersey Family Development Program (FDP) Welfare Reform | N = 8393, low-income women | 1992–1996; primary data | Stratified analysis: Black, Hispanic, White | Welfare recipients not subject to FDP reform | Clinically diagnosed depressive or anxiety disorders | For Black women subject to FDP reform, decreased incidence of anxiety disorder diagnosis (−15.3%, p < 0.05) and depressive disorder diagnosis (− 2.1%, p < 0.05). For Hispanic women subject to FDP reform, increased incidence of depressive disorder diagnosis (68%, p < 0.05) | Moderate |
Komro, 2019 [47] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Earned Income Tax Credit | N = 29,269,997, low-to-moderate income pregnant women | 1994–2013, Vital Statistics Reports | Stratified analysis: Black, Hispanic, White | Non-recipients of EITC, differing EITC levels across States, EITC with and without refund | Birthweight, low birthweight (< 2500 g), weeks gestation | Increase in birth weight (16.12–37.16 g, p < 0.01), reduction in incidence of low birthweight (0.6–1.4%, p = 0.0001) and increase in gestational age (0.38–0.46%, p for Black women when receiving EITC. The relative percent changes are not significantly different for White women. | High |
Rosenquist, 2019 [48] | Quasi-experimental | USA | State-level Minimum wage policies | N = 3,869,884, low-income | 1980–2010, Vital Statistics Reports | Stratified analysis: Black, White | Different minimum wage levels across States | Infant mortality | Decreased odds of infant mortality for Black women in states with higher minimum wage (adjusted OR 0.80, 95%CI 0.68, 0.94), and in states with greatest increase in minimum wage (adjusted OR 0.89, 95% CI 0.82, 0.96). | Moderate |
Nutrition Safeguards | ||||||||||
Arons, 2016 [49] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Special supplemental nutrition program for women, infants, and children (WIC) | N = 327 mother-child dyads | 2006–2011, primary data | Stratified analysis: Black | Full sample | Childhood socioemotional development | No significant difference in socioemotional development in Black children whose mothers receive WIC. | Moderate |
Booshehri, 2021 [50] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Special Supplemental Nutrition Program (SNAP) eligibility at 60 years of age | N = 15,980, low-income older adults (age 60–64 years) | 2008–2013, Medical Expenditure Panel Survey | Stratified analysis: Black, Hispanic, other races, White | Adults aged 56–59 not yet eligible for SNAP | Diet-related morbidities | Upon reaching SNAP eligibility at age 60, decreased prevalence of hypertension (−13.95%, p < 0.01) for Black individuals, decreased prevalence of angina (−6.94%, p < 0.01) and stroke (−4.48%, p < 0.01) for Hispanic individuals. | Moderate |
Conrad, 2017 [51] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Special Supplemental Nutrition Program (SNAP) | N = 499,741 | 2000–2011, National Health Interview Survey | Stratified analysis: Black, Hispanic | SNAP-eligible non-participants | All-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality | Compared to SNAP-eligible non-participants of same race, statistically significant (p < 0.01) higher risk of all-cause and diabetes-related mortality for Black SNAP participants; higher all-cause mortality for Hispanic SNAP participants; higher all-cause, cardiovascular and diabetes-related mortality for White SNAP participants. | Low |
Jia, 2020 [52] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Updated National School Lunch Program (NSLP) | N = 9172, children | 2005–2016, National HEalth and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) | Stratified analysis: Black, Hispanic | Before and after update to NSLP | Dietary intake | Black students increased fruit and vegetable intake by 0.27 cups (95% CI = 0.07, 0.46). Hispanic students reduced in weekday fruit and vegetable intake by 0.29 cups (95% CI = -0.50, −0.08). | Moderate |
Kong, 2014 [53] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Revision to Special supplemental nutrition program for women, infants, and children (WIC) to provide more whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and fewer foods with high saturated fat content | N = 295, parent-child dyads | 2009–2011, primary data | Stratified analysis: Black, Hispanic | Before and after revisions to WIC | Dietary intake, food group intake, diet quality | No significant changes in nutrient intake and overall diet quality were observed for mothers. Black children increased consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (p = 0.01). Hispanic children improved in diet quality (p = 0.02) and saturated fat intake (p = 0.0004). | Moderate |
Immigration | ||||||||||
Bruzelius, 2019 [54] | Quasi-experimental | USA | National anti-immigration policy changes, increased ICE arrest rates | N = 118,883, adults | 2014–2018, Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) | Primary population: Hispanic or Latinx of any race | Before and after immigration policy changes | Mental health | No significant changes in reports of at least one poor mental health day in preceding month, any indication of poor mental health or reports of frequent mental distress. | High |
Hamilton, 2020 [55] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) | N = 72,613, singleton births | 2010–2014, National Centre for Health Statistics | Primary population: Hispanic or Latinx of any race | Infants born to DACA-ineligible mothers; before and after DACA enactment | Birthweight, gestational age | For infants born to DACA-eligible mothers and conceived after DACA enactment, • Low birthweight decreased by 1% (p < 0.05) • Very low birthweight decreased by 0.4% (p < 0.05) • Birthweight increased by average 28.8 g (p < 0.01) • Average gestational age increased by 0.09 weeks (p < 0.05) | Moderate |
Hatzenbuehler, 2017 [56] | Quasi-experimental | USA | State-level exclusionary immigration policies | N = 293,081, adults | 2012, Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) | Primary population: Hispanic or Latinx of any race | States with less exclusionary immigration policies | Mental health | In states with more exclusionary immigration policies, Latinx had 1.14 times (95% CI 1.04,1.25) the rate of poor mental health days than Latinx in states with less exclusionary immigration policies. The association between state immigration policies and rate of poor mental health days higher for Latins than non-Latinx (RR 1.03, 95% CI = 1.01, 1.06). | Moderate |
Potochnick, 2017 [57] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Federal 287(g) program increasing immigration policy enforcement | N = 58,353, adults | 2004–2009, Current Population Survey Food Supplement Survey (CPS-FSS) | Primary population: Hispanic or Latinx of any race | Before and after 287(g) enactment | Food security | Enactment of 287(g) was associated with 10.9% (p < 0.01) increase in food insecurity for Mexican non-citizen households with children. No significant effects for Hispanic citizen, non-Hispanic White or non-Hispanic Black households. | Moderate |
Torche, 2019 [58] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Arizona’s Senate Bill SB1070 increasing immigration policy enforcement | N = 1.5 million, mother-child dyads | 2007–2012, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Arizona Department of Health Services | Primary population: Hispanic or Latinx of any race | Before and after enactment of SB1070 | Birthweight, gestational age, birth rate | Following enactment of SB1070, significant decline in birthweight (15 g, p < 0.01) for infants born in late 2010 to immigrant Latina mothers exposed to passage of law during pregnancy. | High |
Vargas, 2017 [59] | Quasi-experimental | USA | State-level exclusionary immigration policies | N = 1200, adults | 2011, Latino Decisions/ImpreMedia Survey | Primary population: Hispanic or Latinx of any race | States with less punitive anti-immigration policies | Overall health status | Compared to Latinx respondents in states with more punitive anti-immigration policies, Latinx respondents in states with low or medium punitive anti-immigration laws were more likely to report optimal health (OR 1.8, p ≤ 0.05 and OR 1.5, p ≤ 0.05 for low and medium punitive laws, respectively) | Moderate |
Venkataramani, 2017 [60] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) | N = 14,973, adults | 2008–2015, US National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) | Primary population: Hispanic or Latinx of any race | DACA-ineligible adults | Overall health, psychological distress | Implementation of DACA associated with significant reductions in psychological distress scores (incident RR 0.78, 95% CI = 0.56, 0.95) and odds of reporting moderate or worse psychological distress (adjusted incident RR 0.62, 95% CI = 0.41, 0.93) for DACA-eligible compared to DACA-ineligible respondents. | Moderate |
Family and Reproductive Policies | ||||||||||
Coles, 2010 [61] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Restrictive Abortion Statutes (parental involvement laws, Medicaid funding restrictions, mandatory waiting periods) | N = 8245, adolescents aged 10–17 years | 2000–2005, Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) | Stratified analysis: Black, Hispanic | States with less restrictive abortion policies | Unwanted or mistimed births. (Mistimed births were reported in cases where the mother wanted pregnancy only later in life) | In states with Medicaid funding restrictions, Black minors had higher rates of mistimed (RR 4.11, p < 0.05) compared to states with no such restrictions. | Low |
Hamad, 2019 [62] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Paid family leave policies | N = 306,266, post partum women | 2003–2015, National Immunization Survey | Stratified analysis: Black, Hispanic | Before and after implementation of paid family leave policies | Self-reported breastfeeding at any time and at 3-, 6- and 12-months post-partum | Following implementation of paid family leave policies, Hispanic mothers were 2.3% more likely to report exclusive breastfeeding at 6 months (95% CI = 1.2, 3.4). Black mothers were 3.8% less likely to report breastfeeding at 6 months (95% CI = -7.3, −0.3), 2.9% less likely at 12 months (95% CI = -4.8, −1.0) and reported shorter breastfeeding duration by 15.5 days (95% CI = -24.2, −6.9). | Moderate |
Sudhinaraset, 2020 [63] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Reproductive rights policies | N = 3,945,875, women | 2014–2015, National Center for Health Statistics | Stratified analysis: Black, Hispanic, Asian | States with less restrictive abortion policies | Birthweight, preterm birth | In states with the least restrictive rights policies, Black women had a lower risk of low birth weight than Black women in the most restrictive states (Adjusted RR 0.92, 95% CI = 0.86, 0.99) | Moderate |
Policies for Indigenous Populations | ||||||||||
Clough, 2017 [64] | Quasi-experimental | Australia | Alcohol Management Plans (AMPs) | N = 1211, adults in Queensland’s remote Indigenous communities | 2014–2015, primary data | Primary population: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders | Before and after implementation of AMPs | “Favourable” and “unfavourable” alcohol-related health outcomes in the community | Majority of respondents agreed that AMPs made communities safer and less violent. Majority of respondents reported more cannabis use and binge drinking, that alcohol was no less available, and that more law enforcement activities such as fines and arrests occurred. | Moderate |
Feir, 2015 [65] | Quasi-experimental | Canada | Residential school system | N = 4939, First Nations, Métis or Inuit children | 2001, Aboriginal Peoples Survey of Children and Youth (APSCY) | Primary population: First Nations, Métis or Inuit children | Children whose mothers did not attend residential schools | BMI, height, birthweight, childhood injuries | Children whose mothers attended residential school had higher average BMI (p < 0.05) than children whose mothers did not attend residential school. | Moderate |
Larson, 2019 [66] | Quasi-experimental | Australia | Indigenous land and sea management programs (ILSMPs) | N = 190 Ewamian people, Nyikina Mangala, Bunuba people and Walmajarri people | Time period NR, primary data | Primary population: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders | Before and after implementation of ILSMPs | Holistic wellbeing impact evaluation (W-IE) | After implementation of ILSMPs, respondents reported positive change in satisfaction for following wellbeing factors • “Country looked after” (health of land) • Information and communications technology • Legal right to country • Business ownership A negative change in satisfaction was reported for consuming traditional foods. | Low |
Environmental | ||||||||||
Furzer, 2020 [67] | Quasi-experimental | USA | Environmental Policy: PM 2.5 and Clean Air Act Regulations | Not applicable | 2000–2016, primary data and 2020, Johns Hopkins University Coronavirus Resource Center | Primary population: Black, minority | Regions without air pollution limit attainment | COVID-19 deaths | Counties with high proportion of Black or minority residents are less likely to attain air pollution limits, with 6.8–16% more COVID-19 deaths for Black or minority residents. | Moderate |