Table 3 Multilevel regression for factors of limited handwashing facility in sub-Saharan Africa

Age of HH head

 < 35

0.94[ 0.91- 0.97]***

1.00 [0.96—1.02]

35 – 60

0.83 [0.81- 0.86]***

0.89 [0.86—0.91]***

 > 60

Ref

Ref

Sex of HH head

Male

1.06 [1.04—1.08]***

0.99 [0.97—1.02]

Female

Ref

Ref

Household size

1–3

0.90 [0.87—0.93]***

0.94 [0.91—0.98]

4–7

0.92 [0.89—0.95]***

0.91 [0.88—0.94]

7⁺

Ref

Ref

Place of handwashing facility

Fixed

Ref

Ref

Mobile

2.22 [2.18—2.26]***

1.73 [1.70—1.77]***

Source of water

Improved

Ref

Ref

Unimproved

1.09 [1.06—1.11]***

0.98 [0.96—1.01]

Sanitation facility

Improved

Ref

Ref

Unimproved

1.89 [1.86—1.94]***

1.58 [1.55—1.62]***

Time taken to get water

 < 30 min

Ref

Ref

 > 30 min

1.45 [1.41—1.48]***

1.16 [1.13—1.19]***

Children 5 years and below

No children

Ref

Ref

1–2

1.17 [1.14—1.20]***

1.11 [1.09—1.14]***

3⁺

1.33 [1.27—1.39]***

1.25 [1.20—1.31]***

Residence

Rural

2.71[ 2.66—2.77]***

2.08 [2.04—2.13]***

Urban

Ref

Ref

Com. Media

Low

1.50 [1.32—1.70]***

1.47 [1.31—1.66]***

High

Ref

Ref

Income level

Low income

3.11[3.02—3.21]***

2.41 [2.33—2.49]***

Lower middle

2.43[ 2.35—2.51]***

2.10 [2.14—2.17]***

Upper middle

Ref

Ref

Com. Education

Low

1.30 [1.13—1. 48]***

1.30 [1.14—1.48]***

High

Ref

Ref

Random effects

VA

1.28

1.11

1.11

1.01

ICC

0.28

0.25

0.25

0.23

MOR

2.93

2.72

2.72

2.60

PCV

Reff

13.28

13.28

21.09

Model comparison

Deviance

283,410

267,606

264,968

259,616