Table 3 Water supply, water handling, water treatment and water quality at surveyed households before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

Involvement into water supply system in the community

712 (99.6)

183 (37.6)

0.17

354 (99.4)

133 (54.5)

0.56

358 (99.7)

118 (48.8)

0.21

n/a

n/a

Main drinking water source ^a

Piped water in the house or yard

13 (1.8)

96 (19.7)

0.53

9 (2.5)

40 (16.4)

0.10

4 (1.1)

56 (23.1)

0.46

3.52 (2.00-5.04)

0.01

Piped water in the village

689 (96.4)

298 (61.3)

340 (95.5)

156 (63.9)

349 (97.2)

142 (58.7)

Rainwater harvesting

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

Open source (dug well, pond, spring)

5 (0.7)

39 (8.0)

5 (1.4)

16 (6.6)

0 (0.0)

23 (9.5)

Protected source (well, spring)

6 (0.8)

51 (10.5)

0 (0.0)

30 (12.3)

6 (1.7)

21 (8.7)

 Unmanaged piped system

2 (0.3)

1 (0.2)

2 (0.6)

1 (0.4)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

 River, stream or canal

0 (0.0)

1 (0.2)

0 (0.0)

1 (0.4)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

 Lake

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

 Bottled water

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

System level chlorination

n/a

28 (5.8)

n/a

n/a

24 (9.8)

0.01

n/a

4 (1.6)

0.01

n/a

n/a

Frequency of scheme level treatment in two years ^a

 Never

n/a

5 (17.9)

n/a

n/a

5 (20.8)

n/a

n/a

0 (0.0)

n/a

n/a

 Seldom

8 (28.6)

8 (33.3)

0 (0.0)

 Sometimes

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

 Often

12 (42.9)

9 (37.5)

3 (75.0)

 Always

3 (10.7)

2 (8.3)

1 (25.0)

Time required for trip (back and forth) to main drinking water source, including time required to queue to fill the containers^a

 < 5 min

108 (15.1)

35 (7.2)

0.68

45 (12.6)

28 (11.5)

0.60

63 (17.6)

7 (2.9)

0.01

-0.25 (-0.96-0.46)

0.49

 6–30 min

569 (79.6)

333 (68.5)

285 (80.1)

201 (82.4)

284 (79.1)

132 (54.5)

 31–60 min

34 (4.8)

45 (9.3)

22 (6.2)

15 (6.2)

12 (3.3)

30 (12.4)

 > 61 min

4 (0.6)

73 (15.0)

4 (1.12)

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

73 (30.2)

Functioning of main drinking water source ^a

Yes, functioning well

0 (0.0)

6 (1.2)

0.71

0 (0.0)

5 (2.0)

0.01

0 (0.0)

1 (0.4)

0.01

1.86 (1.23–2.49)

0.01

Yes, functioning but not regularly

665 (93.0)

87 (17.9)

338 (94.9)

42 (17.2)

327 (91.1)

45 (18.6)

No, not functioning

50 (7.0)

393 (80.9)

18 (5.1)

197 (80.7)

32 (8.9)

196 (80.9)

Main drinking water source not functional for more than a week during the past 6 months^b

1 (0.1)

94 (19.3)

0.04

0 (0.0)

31 (12.7)

0.32

1 (0.3)

63 (26.0)

0.01

0.008 (0.001–0.54)

0.03

Knowlede about water treatment methods^b

 Boiling

369 (51.6)

411 (84.6)

0.13

220 (61.8)

195 (79.9)

0.01

149 (41.5)

216 (89.3)

0.004

1.21 (0.10-14.08)

0.88

 Use of filter

343 (48.0)

247 (50.8)

0.01

209 (58.7)

138 (56.6)

0.01

134 (37.3)

109 (45.0)

0.01

0.91 (0.14–5.74)

0.92

 Chlorination

48 (6.7)

18 (3.7)

0.51

32 (9.0)

15 (6.2)

0.02

16 (4.5)

3 (1.2)

0.01

1.96 (0.02-199.59)

0.78

 Sodis

26 (3.6)

34 (7.0)

0.01

16 (4.5)

23 (9.4)

0.22

10 (2.8)

11 (4.5)

0.03

n/a

n/a

 Flocculation and sedimentation

0 (0.0)

34 (7.0)

n/a

0 (0.0)

17 (6.9)

0.98

0 (0.0)

17 (7.0)

0

n/a

n/a

 Other

1 (0.1)

1 (0.2)

n/a

1 (0.3)

1 (0.4)

0.31

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0.32

n/a

n/a

 Do not know any

306 (42.8)

38 (7.8)

0.57

111 (31.2)

16 (6.6)

0.01

195 (54.3)

22 (9.1)

0.30

1.32 (0.66–2.61)

0.42

Explanation of the procedures of different water treatment methods ^a

 Good explanation of at least 4 methods

18 (4.4)

17 (3.7)

0.34

11 (4.5)

7 (3.1)

0.01

7 (4.3)

10 (4.3)

0.01

3.59 (2.57–4.62)

0.01

 Good explanation of 3 methods

69 (16.9)

283 (61.4)

40 (16.3)

119 (52.2)

29 (17.7)

164 (70.4)

 Good explanation of 2 methods

133 (32.5)

120 (26.0)

83 (33.9)

74 (32.5)

50 (30.5)

46 (19.7)

 Satisfactory explanation of 1 method

156 (38.1)

40 (8.7)

94 (38.4)

27 (11.8)

62 (37.8)

13 (5.6)

 Cannot explain well

33 (8.1)

1 (0.2)

17 (6.9)

1 (0.4)

16 (9.8)

0 (0.0)

 Treating drinking water^b

60 (8.4)

252 (51.8)

0.05

55 (15.4)

88 (36.1)

0.01

354 (98.6)

164 (67.8)

0.01

0.001 (0.0001-0.02)

0.01

Method used to treat drinking water in last two weeks ^b

 Boiling

5 (0.7)

206 (42.4)

0.48

3 (0.8)

64 (26.2)

0.65

2 (0.6)

142 (58.7)

0.01

0.002 (0.0002-0.03)

0.01

 Use of filter

56 (7.8)

66 (13.6)

0.01

52 (14.6)

45 (18.4)

0.01

4 (1.1)

21 (8.7)

0.002

0.34 (0.006–19.01)

0.60

 Flocculation and sedimentation

0 (0.0)

10 (2.1)

n/a

0 (0.0)

1 (0.4)

0.01

0 (0.0)

9 (3.7)

0.01

n/a

n/a

 Chlorination

0 (0.0)

5 (1.0)

n/a

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0

0 (0.0)

5 (2.1)

0.02

n/a

n/a

 Sodis

0 (0.0)

5 (1.0)

n/a

0 (0.0)

0 (0.0)

0

0 (0.0)

5 (2.1)

0.02

n/a

n/a

Drinking water quality at point of collection

Escherichia coli ^a

 0 CFU/100 mL

48 (6.8)

60 (12.5)

0.01

46 (13.0)

46 (18.9)

0.02

2 (0.6)

14 (5.9)

0.30

3.20 (-667.0-673.41)

0.01

 1–10 CFU/100 mL

153 (21.6)

160 (33.3)

76 (21.5)

77 (31.7)

77 (21.6)

83 (34.9)

 10–100 CFU/100 mL

346 (48.8)

143 (29.7)

139 (39.4)

69 (28.4)

207 (58.2)

74 (31.1)

 100–1000 CFU/100 mL

144 (20.3)

66 (13.7)

87 (24.6)

34 (14.0)

57 (16.0)

32 (13.4)

 > 1000 CFU/100 mL

18 (2.5)

52 (10.8)

5 (1.4)

17 (7.0)

13 (3.6)

35 (14.7)

Median and quartile range (Q1/ Q3)

29 (7/ 83)

12 (4/101)

25 (3/106)

9 (1/ 67)

31 (10/64)

17 (5/117)

Drinking water quality at point of use

Escherichia coli ^a,c

 0 CFU/100 mL

15 (2.1)

35 (7.3)

0.01

13 (3.7)

33 (13.6)

0.01

2 (0.6)

2 (0.8)

0.32

0.85 (0.96–1.74)

0.01

 1–10 CFU/100 mL

100 (14.2)

92 (19.1)

59 (16.8)

54 (22.2)

41 (11.7)

38 (16.0)

 10–100 CFU/100 mL

347 (49.4)

194 (40.3)

151 (42.9)

82 (33.7)

196 (56.0)

112 (47.1)

 100–1000 CFU/100 mL

205 (29.2)

106 (22.0)

115 (32.7)

55 (22.6)

90 (25.7)

51 (21.4)

 > 1000 CFU/100 mL

35 (5.0)

54 (11.2)

14 (4.0)

19 (7.8)

21 (6.0)

35 (14.7)

Median and quartile range (Q1/ Q3)

51.5 (17/ 165)

34 (8/194)

50.5 (12.5/170.5)

21 (3/ 160)

53.5 (23/143)

44.5 (14/ 208)