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Table 3 Odds ratio estimates on the association between stunting and wasting and other factors on the prevalence of stunting and wasting among under-5 children, Ethiopia, 2000–2016

From: Association between water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) and child undernutrition in Ethiopia: a hierarchical approach

Characteristics

Stunting

(OR, 95%CI)

p-value

Wasting

(OR, 95%CI)

p-value

WASH Facility

    

Latrine facility

    

Improved

1

 

1

 

Unimproved

1.61 (1.49,1.74)

p < 0.001

1.11 (0.98,1.26)

0.087

Open defecation

2.13 (1.98,2.29)

p < 0.001

1.78 (1.60,1.98)

p < 0.001

Source of drinking water

    

Improved

1

 

1

 

Unimproved

1.39 (1.32,1.46)

p < 0.001

1.17 (1.09,1.25)

p < 0.001

Child stool disposal

    

Safe

1

 

1

 

Unsafe

1.55 (1.46,1.64)

p < 0.001

1.50 (1.37,1.65)

p < 0.001

Household flooring

    

Improved

1

 

1

 

Unimproved

2.82 (2.60,3.05)

p < 0.001

1.87 (1.65,2.11)

p < 0.001

Time to get a water source

    

On-premise

1

 

1

 

≤ 30 min

2.80 (2.53,3.09)

p < 0.001

1.59 (1.37, 1.86)

p < 0.001

31–60 min

2.82 (2.53, 3.14)

p < 0.001

1.78 (1.51,2.09)

p < 0.001

> 60 min

2.76 (2.47, 3.08)

p < 0.001

2.06 (1.74,2.43)

p < 0.001

Household drinking water service

    

Basic drinking water service

1

   

Limited drinking water service

1.25 (1.15,1.36)

p < 0.001

1.26 (1.12,1.43)

p < 0.001

Poor drinking water service

1.42 (1.34,1.49)

p < 0.001

1.22 (1.12,1.33)

p < 0.001

Combined sanitation facility

    

Improved Water + Improved Sanitation

1

 

1

 

Either one improved

2.19 (2.01,2.39)

p < 0.001

1.82 (1.58,2.09)

p < 0.001

Unimproved Water + Unimproved Sanitation

2.57 (2.36,2.79)

p < 0.001

1.88 (1.64,2.15)

p < 0.001

Child Factors

    

Childhood infections

    

Diarrhea

    

Yes

1.25 (1.17,1.33)

p < 0.001

1.64 (1.51,1.79)

p < 0.001

No

1

 

1

 

Fever

    

Yes

1.19 (1.13,1.26)

p < 0.001

1.56 (1.44,1.69)

p < 0.001

No

1

   

ARI

    

Yes

0.92 (0.82,1.04)

0.206

1.29 (1.09,1.53)

0.002

No

1

 

1

 

Sex

    

Male

1

 

1

 

Female

0.89 (0.84,0.93)

p < 0.001

0.82 (0.76,0.87)

p < 0.001

Age (months)

    

< 12

1

 

1

 

12–23

4.19 (3.85,4.55)

p < 0.001

0.89 (0.81,0.98)

0.019

≥ 24 to 59 months

5.43 (5.05,5.83)

p < 0.001

0.45 (0.42,0.49)

p < 0.001

Birth order

    

First born

1

 

1

 

2–4

1.13 (1.07,1.21)

p < 0.001

1.16 (1.05,1.28)

0.003

5 or higher

1.34 (1.25,1.43)

p < 0.001

1.35 (1.22,1.49)

p < 0.001

Birth interval

    

< 33 months

1

 

1

 

≥ 33 months

1.15 (1.10,1.22)

p < 0.001

1.01 (0.94,1.09)

0.695

Size of child at birth

    

Larger

1

 

1

 

Average

1.11 (1.05,1.17)

p < 0.001

1.19 (1.09,1.30)

p < 0.001

Small

1.46 (1.37,1.55)

p < 0.001

1.79 (1.63,1.95)

p < 0.001

Currently breastfeeding

    

Yes

1

 

1

 

No

1.17 (1.11,1.23)

p < 0.001

0.69 (0.63,0.74)

p < 0.001

Early initiation of breastfeeding

    

Yes

1

 

1

 

No

1.14 (1.08,1.20)

p < 0.001

1.04 (0.96,1.12)

0.314

Received measles

    

Yes

1

 

1

 

No

0.81 (0.77,0.85)

p < 0.001

1.61 (1.49,1.74)

p < 0.001

Basic vaccine

    

Yes

1

 

1

 

No

0.94 (0.88,0.99)

0.033

1.61 (1.46,1.78)

p < 0.001

Parental factors

    

Mother’s age

    

< 18

1

 

1

 

18–24

1.37 (1.04,1.79)

0.023

0.71 (0.51,1.01)

0.051

25–34

1.55 (1.18,2.03)

0.001

0.64 (0.46,090)

0.011

≥ 35

1.72 (1.31,2.26)

p < 0.001

0.69 (0.49,0.98)

0.038

Mother’s education

    

No education

5.56 (4.36,7.09)

p < 0.001

2.70 (1.87,3.90)

p < 0.001

Primary

3.79 (2.96, 4.85)

p < 0.001

1.91 (1.31, 2.78)

0.001

Secondary

1.85 (1.42, 2.41)

p < 0.001

1.24 (0.82, 1.87)

0.306

Higher

1

 

1

 

Mother’s occupation

    

Not working

1

 

1

 

Non agriculture

0.95 (0.89,1.01)

0.110

0.74 (0.67,0.81)

p < 0.001

Agriculture

1.54 (1.46,1.63)

p < 0.001

1.02 (0.94, 1.11)

0.541

ANC Visit

    

None

1

 

1

 

1–3

0.71 (0.66,0.76)

p < 0.001

0.84 (0.77,0.93)

p < 0.001

4+

0.48 (0.44,0.52)

p < 0.001

0.52 (0.47,0.58)

p < 0.001

Maternal BMI (kg/m2)

    

< 18.5

1

 

1

 

18.5 to 24.9

0.89 (0.84,0.94)

p < 0.001

0.55 (0.51,0.59)

p < 0.001

25 +

0.37 (0.32,0.41)

p < 0.001

0.26 (0.21,0.32)

p < 0.001

Husband’s education

    

No education

1

 

1

 

Primary

3.64 (3.17,4.19)

p < 0.001

1.82 (1.49,2.23)

p < 0.001

Secondary

2.75 (2.38,3.18)

p < 0.001

1.24 (1.01,1.54)

0.037

Higher

1.69 (1.44,1.97)

p < 0.001

1.18 (0.94,1.49)

0.148

Listening to radio

    

Not at all

1

 

1

 

Yes

0.75 (0.72,0.79)

p < 0.001

0.66 (0.61,0.71)

p < 0.001

Watching television

    

Not at all

1

 

1

 

Yes

0.52 (0.49,0.55)

p < 0.001

0.53 (0.47,0.58)

p < 0.001

Household factors

    

Wealth index

    

Poor

1.71 (1.59,1.81)

p < 0.001

1.95 (1.76,2.16)

p < 0.001

Middle

1.52 (1.39,1.65)

p < 0.001

1.52 (1.33,1.74)

p < 0.001

Rich

1

 

1

 

Household Size

    

1–4

0.86 (0.82,0.91)

p < 0.001

0.89 (0.82,0.97)

0.006

≥ 5

1

 

1

 

Community-Level Factors

    

Residence

    

Urban

1

 

1

 

Rural

2.29 (2.14,2.46)

p < 0.001

1.61 (1.45,1.80)

p < 0.001

Region

    

Agrarian

1.91 (1.77,2.05)

p < 0.001

1.55 (1.38,1.74)

p < 0.001

Pastoralist

1.78 (1.63,1.93)

p < 0.001

1.55 (1.37,1.76)

p < 0.001

City

1

 

1

 

Ecological Zone (meters in elevation)

    

< 1500

0.65 (0.58,0.73)

p < 0.001

2.01 (1.68,2.41)

p < 0.001

1500–2500

0.73 (0.66,0.82)

p < 0.001

1.23 (1.03,1.48)

p < 0.001

> 2500

1

 

1

 
  1. AOR: Adjusted Odds Ratio; COR: Crude Odds Ratio