From: COVID-19 related stigma among the general population in Iran
Study [Ref.] | Country; Population | Participants | Sample size; sampling method | Type of stigma | Prevalence of stigma | Measurement tool and Data collection method |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chen, 2020 [47] | China; Urban and rural | Adult residents of Hubei | 1902; Unknown | Perceived | 44.3% | Items: Perceived discrimination (whether they had encountered discrimination because of the COVID-19 pandemic). Online and Phone interview. |
Wei, 2020 [48] | China; Urban and rural | Residents of 9 provinces with varying epidemic levels. | 1344; Convenience | Perceived | 57.4% | Items: Reporting travel history to high-risk epidemic region makes me feel stigma. Online. |
Li, 2021 [30] | China; Urban and rural | Unvaccinated adult residents of 27 cities of 9 provinces | 2377; Cluster Random | Enacted | 62.3% | Items: Discrimination against recovered COVID-19 patients (6 questions with the content of face to face contact with recovered COVID-19 survivors). Face-to-face interview and online video interview. |
Wang, 2021 [31] | China; Urban and rural | Adult residents of China | 4191; Unknown | Enacted | 62% | Items: Public discrimination against COVID-19 patients. Online. |
Zhang, 2021 [36] | China; Unknown | Adult residents of Mainland China | 1212; convenience | Enacted | 31.8%a | Scale: Public Stigma of COVID-19 Scale. Online. |
Zhao, 2021 [37] | China; Unknown | Adult residents of 26 provinces. | 1920; Convenience | Enacted | @Max: 15.9% Min: 5.2% | Scale: COVID-19.related stigma toward individuals in high-risk areas, recovered patients with COVID-19, families of recovered patients with COVID-19, and frontline healthcare providers. Online. |
Tee, 2020 [51] | Philippines; Urban and rural | Adult residents of Luzon Islands | 1879; Snowball | Perceived | 15.5% | Items: Feeling of being discriminated by other countries due to the outbreak of COVID-19. Online |
Aqeel, 2020 [32] | India; Urban | Adult residents of Delhi.NCR | 823; Systematic random | Enacted | 73.3% | Items: COVID-19 infection has become a social stigma; Therefore, the patients are reluctant to disclose their symptoms at the early stage. Online. |
Cassiani.Miranda, 2020 [33] | Columbia; Unknown | Columbian adults | 1687; Convenience | Enacted | 4.1% | Itemsb: Questionnaire on COVID-19 Stigma-Discrimination. Online. |
Haddad, 2021 [54] | Lebanon; Urban and rural | Lebanese adults | 405; Snowball | Enacted | 62%c | Scale: Stigma discrimination scale. Online |
Abuhammad, 2020 [35] | Jordan; Urban and rural | Jordanian adults | 1655; Unknown | Enacted | 64.8%d | Scale: Stigma toward COVID-19 infection scale. Online. |
Abdelhafiz, 2020 [34] | Egypt; Urban and rural | Non-HCW Egyptian adults | 559; Convenience | Enacted | 22.7% | Items: Infection with the virus is associated with stigma. Online and face-to-face interview. |
Taylor, 2020 [50] | U.S.A. and Canada; Unknown | Non-HCW adult residents of the U.S.A and Canada | 3551; Random | Enacted | 33.2% | Scale: HCW Stigmatization Survey; stigmatizing attitudes towards HCWs. Online. |
Robinson, 2021 [49] | U.S.A.; Urban and rural | Adult residents of the U.S.A | 5549; Random | Perceived | 4.8% | Items: Four items adapted from the Perceived Everyday Experiences with Discrimination Scale, developed by Williams et al.e Online. |
Yu, 2020 [21] | U.S.A.; Unknown | Asian adult residents of 35 states of the U.S. A | 235; Unknown Convenience | Perceived | 7.6% | Items: Two items adapted from the Perceived Everyday Experiences with Discrimination Scale, developed by Williams et al.e Online. |
The current study | Iran; Urban | Adult residents of Tehran | 630; Random | Enacted | 13.2%f | Scale: COVID-19.related stigma questionnaire. Phone interview. |