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Table 4 The characteristics of the studies investigated COVID-19 related stigma from general population’s perspectives

From: COVID-19 related stigma among the general population in Iran

Study [Ref.]

Country; Population

Participants

Sample size; sampling method

Type of stigma

Prevalence of stigma

Measurement tool

and Data collection method

Chen, 2020 [47]

China; Urban and rural

Adult residents of Hubei

1902; Unknown

Perceived

44.3%

Items: Perceived discrimination (whether they had encountered discrimination because of the COVID-19 pandemic). Online and Phone interview.

Wei, 2020 [48]

China; Urban and rural

Residents of 9 provinces with varying epidemic levels.

1344; Convenience

Perceived

57.4%

Items: Reporting travel history to high-risk epidemic region makes me feel stigma. Online.

Li, 2021 [30]

China; Urban and rural

Unvaccinated adult residents of 27 cities of 9 provinces

2377; Cluster Random

Enacted

62.3%

Items: Discrimination against recovered COVID-19 patients (6 questions with the content of face to face contact with recovered COVID-19 survivors). Face-to-face interview and online video interview.

Wang, 2021 [31]

China; Urban and rural

Adult residents of China

4191; Unknown

Enacted

62%

Items: Public discrimination against COVID-19 patients. Online.

Zhang, 2021 [36]

China; Unknown

Adult residents of Mainland China

1212; convenience

Enacted

31.8%a

Scale: Public Stigma of COVID-19 Scale. Online.

Zhao, 2021 [37]

China; Unknown

Adult residents of 26 provinces.

1920; Convenience

Enacted

@Max: 15.9% Min: 5.2%

Scale: COVID-19.related stigma toward individuals in high-risk areas, recovered patients with COVID-19, families of recovered patients with COVID-19, and frontline healthcare providers. Online.

Tee, 2020 [51]

Philippines; Urban and rural

Adult residents of Luzon Islands

1879; Snowball

Perceived

15.5%

Items: Feeling of being discriminated by other countries due to the outbreak of COVID-19. Online

Aqeel, 2020 [32]

India; Urban

Adult residents of Delhi.NCR

823; Systematic random

Enacted

73.3%

Items: COVID-19 infection has become a social stigma; Therefore, the patients are reluctant to disclose their symptoms at the early stage. Online.

Cassiani.Miranda, 2020 [33]

Columbia; Unknown

Columbian adults

1687; Convenience

Enacted

4.1%

Itemsb: Questionnaire on COVID-19 Stigma-Discrimination. Online.

Haddad, 2021 [54]

Lebanon; Urban and rural

Lebanese adults

405; Snowball

Enacted

62%c

Scale: Stigma discrimination scale. Online

Abuhammad, 2020 [35]

Jordan; Urban and rural

Jordanian adults

1655; Unknown

Enacted

64.8%d

Scale: Stigma toward COVID-19 infection scale. Online.

Abdelhafiz, 2020 [34]

Egypt; Urban and rural

Non-HCW Egyptian adults

559; Convenience

Enacted

22.7%

Items: Infection with the virus is associated with stigma. Online and face-to-face interview.

Taylor, 2020 [50]

U.S.A. and Canada; Unknown

Non-HCW adult residents of the U.S.A and Canada

3551; Random

Enacted

33.2%

Scale: HCW Stigmatization Survey; stigmatizing attitudes towards HCWs. Online.

Robinson, 2021 [49]

U.S.A.; Urban and rural

Adult residents of the U.S.A

5549; Random

Perceived

4.8%

Items: Four items adapted from the Perceived Everyday Experiences with Discrimination Scale, developed by Williams et al.e Online.

Yu, 2020 [21]

U.S.A.; Unknown

Asian adult residents of 35 states of the U.S. A

235; Unknown Convenience

Perceived

7.6%

Items: Two items adapted from the Perceived Everyday Experiences with Discrimination Scale, developed by Williams et al.e Online.

The current study

Iran; Urban

Adult residents of Tehran

630; Random

Enacted

13.2%f

Scale: COVID-19.related stigma questionnaire. Phone interview.

  1. Table 4 described the 17 studies, including the current one, investigated perceived and enacted stigma from general population’s perspectives using either a single item or a scale. Ref. Reference, HCW Healthcare worker, NCR National Capital Region, U.S.A. United States of America.
  2. aThe mean: SD (Range of scale) of the stigma score was 2.68: 0.63 (1.5), indicating a mild to moderate level of stigma. @: Zhao et al. showed that 15.94, 14.84, 13.80, and 5.21% of participants endorsed stigma toward individuals in high-risk areas, recovered patients with COVID-19, families of recovered patients with COVID-19, and frontline healthcare providers, respectively. The mean: SD (Range of scale) of the stigma score for all subjects of stigma were between 2.03: 0.60 (1.5) and 2.38: 0.65 (1.5), indicating a mild to moderate level of stigma
  3. bWe considered the measurement tool of Cassiani-Miranda’s study an Item rather than a scale because they could not establish the reliability of their scale and results were reported based on each item.
  4. c The mean: SD (Range of scale) of the stigma score: 26.2: 5.4 (11.55), indication a mild to moderate level of stigma
  5. d The mean: SD (Range of scale) of the stigma score: 11.5: 1.3 (8.16), indicating a mild to moderate level of stigma
  6. eWilliams, D.R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J.S., & Anderson, N.B. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2, 335–351
  7. f13.2% of participants reported a moderate level of stigma and 0% of them reported a severe level of stigma; The mean: SD (Range of scale) of the stigma score: 25.1: 4.7 (18.54), indicating a mild to moderate level of stigma