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Table 3 Handwashing and Hygiene Practices During COVID-19

From: The school education, ritual customs, and reciprocity associated with self-regulating hand hygiene practices during COVID-19 in Japan

 

Handwashing with water

(Average of four items)

Handwashing with soap

(Average of four items)

Hygiene practices

(Average of fifteen items)

Time periods

April

July/August (J/A)

J/A(controlling for April)

April

July/August (J/A)

J/A(controlling for April)

April

July/August (J/A)

J/A(controlling for April)

 

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

Panel A: Eq. (1) Adjustments for childhood education/residence as below, as well as demographic/ behavioral/labor/age and prefecture dummies

 Elementary School Education

  Everyone in my class was supervised by teachers to ensure that they washed their hands in turn

0.0256***

0.0191***

0.0124*

0.0666***

0.0608***

0.0164

0.3159***

0.2871***

0.1084**

(0.007)

(0.007)

(0.007)

(0.015)

(0.015)

(0.012)

(0.058)

(0.059)

(0.049)

  There was a handmade soap making class

0.0278***

0.0203**

0.0122

0.0817***

0.0833***

0.0294**

0.1864***

0.1452**

0.0388

(0.009)

(0.009)

(0.009)

(0.019)

(0.019)

(0.014)

(0.071)

(0.072)

(0.060)

 Childhood Residential Area Near Shrines/Temples

  There were shrines near my house or along the school route

0.0030

0.0008

0.0015

-0.0074

-0.0096

-0.0047

0.0071

0.0510

0.0477

(0.007)

(0.007)

(0.007)

(0.014)

(0.015)

(0.011)

(0.055)

(0.056)

(0.046)

  There were temples near my house or along the school route

0.0035

-0.0007

-0.0011

0.0033

0.0070

0.0045

0.0982*

0.0263

-0.0284

(0.007)

(0.007)

(0.007)

(0.014)

(0.015)

(0.011)

(0.055)

(0.056)

(0.046)

Panel B: Eq. (2) Adjustments for handwashing experiences at shrines/temple and reciprocity as below in addition to those in Panel A

 Elementary School Education

  Everyone in my class was supervised by teachers to ensure that they washed their hands in turn

0.0200***

0.0138*

0.0084

0.0555***

0.0490***

0.0123

0.2617***

0.2435***

0.0968**

(0.007)

(0.007)

(0.007)

(0.015)

(0.015)

(0.012)

(0.058)

(0.059)

(0.049)

  There was a handmade soap making class

0.0238***

0.0166*

0.0095

0.0739***

0.0745***

0.0261*

0.1500**

0.1144

0.0294

(0.009)

(0.009)

(0.009)

(0.019)

(0.019)

(0.014)

(0.071)

(0.072)

(0.060)

 Childhood Residential Area Near Shrines/Temples

  There were shrines near my house or along the school route

0.0027

0.0014

0.0016

-0.0023

-0.0040

-0.0025

0.0138

0.0639

0.0567

(0.007)

(0.007)

(0.007)

(0.014)

(0.015)

(0.011)

(0.055)

(0.056)

(0.047)

  There were temples near my house or along the school route

0.0017

-0.0019

-0.0021

0.0013

0.0045

0.0033

0.0824

0.0174

-0.0281

(0.007)

(0.007)

(0.007)

(0.014)

(0.015)

(0.011)

(0.055)

(0.055)

(0.046)

 Childhood Handwashing Experiences at Shrines/Temples

  Never washed hands (Base)

   Washed hands only a few times

0.0242***

0.0080

0.0058

0.0220

0.0032

-0.0118

0.2240***

0.0704

-0.0533

(0.009)

(0.009)

(0.009)

(0.019)

(0.020)

(0.015)

(0.074)

(0.075)

(0.063)

   Washed hands most of the time

0.0447***

0.0352***

0.0256***

0.0996***

0.0809***

0.0153

0.2981***

0.2319***

0.0664

(0.009)

(0.009)

(0.009)

(0.018)

(0.019)

(0.014)

(0.071)

(0.072)

(0.060)

   Always washed hands

0.0470***

0.0415***

0.0308***

0.1100***

0.1201***

0.0474***

0.4882***

0.3642***

0.0919

(0.010)

(0.010)

(0.010)

(0.020)

(0.020)

(0.016)

(0.076)

(0.077)

(0.065)

 Reciprocity

  Reciprocity

0.0092**

0.0138***

0.0119***

0.0199***

0.0210***

0.0078

0.1710***

0.1553***

0.0600**

(0.004)

(0.004)

(0.004)

(0.008)

(0.008)

(0.006)

(0.029)

(0.029)

(0.025)

 Handwashing/Hygiene Practices in April

  Average of four/fifteen items

  

0.0966***

  

0.6580***

  

0.5600***

  

(0.007)

  

(0.012)

  

(0.013)

Observations

4,501

4,501

4,501

4,501

4501

4501

4501

4501

4501

  1. In this table, handwashing practices measured in April (1st Survey) and July/August (4th Survey) are first used separately as the outcome variables (the first and second column under each set of outcomes), and the handwashing practices measured in July/August are then used while those in April are additionally controlled for (the third column under each set of outcomes). Results yielded by Eq. (1) are presented in Panel A. Note that in Panel A, childhood handwashing experiences at shrines/temples and reciprocity (customs/reciprocity) are intentionally excluded from these findings because these two sets of variables are considered as concomitant variables which are a plausible surrogate for more immediately relevant confounding variables (education / residence). Individual characteristics, behavioral factors, labor-related variables, and age/prefecture dummies are also controlled for (for more detailed information, see table A3). Standard errors are given in parentheses. ***, **, and * indicate p < .01, p < .05, and p < .1