Table 4 Associations of frequency and strength of spicy food consumption with CVD risk factors by diabetes
|  | Frequency of spicy foods consumption; β and 95% confidence interval | |||||
Never(<1 days/wk.) | Sometimes (<2 days/wk.) | Often (3–4 days/wk.) | Usually (≥5 days/wk.) | Adjusted R-squared | P for trend | |
No. of participants | ||||||
 Diabetes | 3306 | 257 | 155 | 210 |  |  |
 Non-diabetes | 22,821 | 1449 | 840 | 951 |  |  |
SBP | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 1.64(−1.52,4.80) | 1.39(−2.63,5.41) | 1.72(− 1.92,5.36) | 0.0419 | 0.201 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 0.80(−0.55,2.16) | 2.20(0.43,3.96) | 2.27(0.58,3.95) | 0.0789 | < 0.001 |
DBP | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 0.93(−0.68,2.53) | 0.79(− 1.26,2.83) | 1.98(0.13,3.82) | 0.0277 | 0.022 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 0.67(− 0.05,1.38) | 1.18(0.25,2.11) | 1.85(0.96,2.74) | 0.0334 | < 0.001 |
Glucose (mmol/L) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | −0.047(− 0.497,0.403) | − 0.182(− 0.752,0.388) | 0.440(− 0.073,0.952) | 0.0103 | 0.297 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 0.010(− 0.029,0.049) | 0.052(0.002,0.103) | 0.026(− 0.023,0.075) | 0.0707 | 0.054 |
HDL-cholesterol (mmol/L) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | −0.035(− 0.091,0.020) | 0.002(− 0.069,0.073) | 0.007(− 0.056,0.071) | 0.0637 | 0.943 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | −0.004(− 0.030,0.021) | 0.001(− 0.032,0.035) | −0.044(− 0.076,-0.012) | 0.0572 | 0.027 |
LDL-cholesterol (mmol/L) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 0.021(−0.082,0.125) | −0.034(− 0.166,0.097) | 0.007(− 0.111,0.125) | 0.0641 | 0.972 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 0.067(0.025,0.110) | 0.012(−0.043,0.067) | −0.047(− 0.099,0.006) | 0.0716 | 0.732 |
TG (mmol/L) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 0.109(−0.156,0.375) | −0.011(− 0.348,0.327) | 0.499(0.195,0.802) | 0.0144 | 0.006 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 0.021(−0.050,0.092) | 0.033(−0.059,0.125) | 0.068(− 0.020,0.156) | 0.0023 | 0.091 |
TC (mmol/L) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | −0.011(− 0.187,0.164) | −0.043(− 0.267,0.180) | 0.089(− 0.112,0.290) | 0.0364 | 0.612 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 0.068(−0.005,0.140) | −0.007(− 0.101,0.087) | −0.122(− 0.212,-0.032) | 0.0471 | 0.092 |
BMI (kg/m2) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 0.71(0.25,1.18) | 0.96(0.37,1.55) | 1.16(0.63,1.69) | 0.0221 | < 0.001 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 0.55(0.34,0.76) | 0.81(0.54,0.108) | 1.11(0.85,1.37) | 0.0215 | < 0.001 |
WC (cm) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 1.11(−0.07,2.30) | 2.05(0.54,3.56) | 3.07(1.71,4.43) | 0.0743 | < 0.001 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 1.22(0.68,1.77) | 1.69(0.98,2.40) | 2.49(1.81,3.17) | 0.0792 | < 0.001 |
WHR | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 0.001(−0.007,0.010) | 0.008(− 0.003,0.019) | 0.005(− 0.005,0.015) | 0.1024 | 0.137 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 0.004(0.000,0.007) | 0.007(0.002,0.012) | 0.009(0.004,0.014) | 0.1471 | < 0.001 |
|  | Strength of spicy foods consumption; β and 95% confidence interval | |||||
Never | Mild | Moderate | strong | Adjusted R-squared | P for trend | |
No. of participants | ||||||
 Diabetes | 3306 | 354 | 197 | 71 |  |  |
 Non-diabetes | 22,821 | 2022 | 909 | 305 |  |  |
SBP | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 1.16(−1.63,3.96) | 2.44(−1.14,6.01) | 1.38 (−4.76,7.51) | 0.0421 | 0.155 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 1.93(0.77,3.09) | 0.58(−1.14,2.31) | 2.34(−0.66,5.34) | 0.0789 | 0.006 |
DBP | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 1.04 (− 0.38,2.47) | 1.61(− 0.20,3.42) | 1.01(−2.11,4.13) | 0.0275 | 0.043 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 1.23(0.62,1.84) | 0.63(−0.28,1.54) | 2.16(0.57,3.74) | 0.0333 | < 0.001 |
Glucose (mmol/L) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 0.068(−0.329,0.464) | 0.032(−0.475,0.538) | 0.260(− 0.619,1.138) | 0.0093 | 0.595 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 0.044(0.010,0.077) | 0.010(−0.040,0.059) | −0.052(− 0.139,0.035) | 0.0708 | 0.466 |
HDL-cholesterol (mmol/L) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | −0.020(− 0.069,0.029) | 0.000(− 0.063,0.063) | 0.009(− 0.118,0.099) | 0.0633 | 0.694 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | −0.014(− 0.036,0.007) | −0.013(− 0.045,0.019) | −0.014(− 0.071,0.042) | 0.0569 | 0.173 |
LDL-cholesterol (mmol/L) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | −0.046(− 0.137,0.045) | 0.102(− 0.014,0.218) | −0.044(− 0.244,0.156) | 0.0655 | 0.610 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 0.001(−0.036,0.037) | 0.056(0.002,0.110) | 0.042(−0.053,0.136) | 0.0711 | 0.071 |
TG (mmol/L) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 0.060(−0.175,0.294) | 0.459(0.160,0.758) | 0.184(−0.331,0.699) | 0.0139 | 0.011 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 0.003(−0.057,0.064) | 0.081(− 0.009,0.171) | 0.164(0.007,0.321) | 0.0025 | 0.020 |
TC (mmol/L) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | −0.040(− 0.195,0.115) | 0.101(− 0.097,0.299) | 0.023(− 0.318,0.364) | 0.0366 | 0.590 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | −0.022(− 0.084,0.040) | 0.016(− 0.076,0.108) | 0.026(− 0.134,0.187) | 0.0465 | 0.934 |
BMI (kg/m2) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 0.75(0.34,1.16) | 0.99(0.47,1.51) | 1.59(0.69,2.50) | 0.0226 | < 0.001 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 0.61(0.43,0.79) | 1.02(0.76,1.29) | 1.22(0.76,1.69) | 0.0215 | < 0.001 |
WC (cm) | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 1.51(0.46,2.56) | 1.99(0.66,3.33) | 4.51(2.21,6.81) | 0.0746 | < 0.001 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 1.48(1.01,1.94) | 1.83(1.14,2.52) | 3.04(1.83,4.25) | 0.0790 | < 0.001 |
WHR | ||||||
 Diabetes | Ref | 0.003(−0.004,0.011) | 0.007(−0.003,0.016) | 0.001(− 0.016,0.018) | 0.1022 | 0.214 |
 Non-diabetes | Ref | 0.006(0.002,0.009) | 0.004(−0.001,0.009) | 0.015(0.007,0.024) | 0.1471 | < 0.001 |