Table 3 Associations between strength of spicy food consumption and CVD risk factors

No. of participants

26,413

2407

1121

380

BMI (kg/m²)

23.67 ± 3.30

24.37 ± 3.29

24.66 ± 3.44

24.86 ± 3.35

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

0.70(0.57,0.84)

1.00(0.80,1.19)

1.19(0.86,1.53)

0.0074

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

0.72(0.58,0.86)

1.04(0.84,1.23)

1.35(1.01,1.68)

0.0223

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

0.68(0.51,0.84)

1.07(0.83,1.31)

1.38(0.97,1.80)

0.0221

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

0.67(0.51,0.84)

1.07(0.84,1.31)

1.41(1.00,1.83)

0.0232

< 0.001

WC (cm)

78.56 ± 8.99

79.98 ± 8.82

80.48 ± 9.08

81.92 ± 9.44

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

1.42(1.04,1.80)

1.91(1.38,2.45)

3.36(2.45,4.27)

0.0770

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

1.77(1.40,2.13)

2.18(1.65,2.70)

3.40(2.52,4.29)

0.0765

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

1.61(1.18,2.04)

2.10(1.48,2.72)

3.62(2.54,4.70)

0.0792

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

1.61(1.18,2.04)

2.13(1.51,2.75)

3.69(2.61,4.77)

0.0805

< 0.001

WHR

0.867 ± 0.068

0.871 ± 0.067

0.873 ± 0.067

0.881 ± 0.065

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

0.004(0.001,0.007)

0.006(0.002,0.010)

0.014(0.007,0.021)

0.0009

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

0.007(0.005,0.010)

0.008(0.004,0.012)

0.012(0.006,0.019)

0.1431

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

0.007(0.003,0.010)

0.007(0.003,0.011)

0.015(0.007,0.023)

0.1404

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

0.007(0.003,0.010)

0.007(0.003,0.012)

0.015(0.007,0.023)

0.1407

< 0.001

SBP (mmHg)

130.34 ± 22.13

131.08 ± 21.85

129.48 ± 22.91

131.19 ± 22.98

0.183

 Crude model

Ref

0.74(−0.19,1.67)

−0.86(−2.19,0.47)

0.86(−1.39,3.10)

0.0001

0.772

  Model 1

Ref

2.19(1.29,3.08)

1.06(− 0.22,2.33)

3.04(0.88,5.20)

0.0944

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

2.05(0.98,3.12)

1.42(−0.12,2.97)

2.49(− 0.19,5.17)

0.0778

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

2.07(1.00,3.14)

1.46(−0.09,3.00)

2.49(−0.19,5.18)

0.0783

< 0.001

DBP (mmHg)

73.47 ± 11.22

74.59 ± 11.27

74.16 ± 11.28

75.83 ± 12.42

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

1.12(0.65,1.59)

0.68(0.01,1.36)

2.35(1.22,3.49)

0.0012

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

1.48(1.01,1.95)

0.78(0.11,1.45)

2.18(1.05,3.32)

0.0330

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

1.26(0.69,1.82)

0.95(0.14,1.76)

2.00(0.60,3.41)

0.0306

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

1.26(0.69,1.82)

0.99(0.18,1.79)

2.03(0.62,3.43)

0.0316

< 0.001

Glucose (mmol/L)

5.73 ± 1.63

5.85 ± 1.78

5.92 ± 1.85

6.03 ± 2.28

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

0.118(0.048,0.117)

0.190(0.091,0.290)

0.299(0.130,0.468)

0.0010

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

0.149(0.079,0.219)

0.259(0.158,0.359)

0.352(0.182,0.522)

0.0154

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

0.155(0.069,0.240)

0.286(0.162,0.410)

0.330(0.113,0.546)

0.0176

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

0.157(0.071,0.243)

0.279(0.155,0.403)

0,336(0.120,0.552)

0.0194

< 0.001

HDL-cholesterol (mmol/L)

1.66 ± 0.41

1.63 ± 0.40

1.63 ± 0.42

1.60 ± 0.40

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

−0.029(−0.045,-0.012)

−0.030(− 0.055,-0.006)

− 0.060(− 0.101,-0.019)

0.0007

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

− 0.032(− 0.049,-0.015)

− 0.017(− 0.041,0.007)

−0.029(− 0.070,0.012)

0.0494

0.001

  Model 2

Ref

−0.020(− 0.040,0.000)

−0.015(− 0.044,0.014)

−0.020(− 0.070,0.031)

0.0498

0.054

  Model 3

Ref

−0.018(− 0.038,0.002)

−0.019(− 0.048,0.010)

−0.026(− 0.076,0.024)

0.0560

0.030

LDL-cholesterol (mmol/L)

3.26 ± 0.71

3.26 ± 0.69

3.30 ± 0.71

3.31 ± 0.73

0.262

 Crude model

Ref

−0.003(− 0.032,0.027)

0.034(− 0.008,0.076)

0.045(− 0.027,0.117)

0.0000

0.100

  Model 1

Ref

−0.030(− 0.059,-0.001)

0.027(− 0.015,0.069)

0.064(− 0.007,0.135)

0.0483

0.335

  Model 2

Ref

−0.009(− 0.043,0.025)

0.084(0.035,0.132)

0.043(− 0.042,0.128)

0.0610

0.012

  Model 3

Ref

−0.006(− 0.039,0.028)

0.076(0.027,0.124)

0.033(− 0.051,0.118)

0.0689

0.023

TG (mmol/L)

1.66 ± 1.22

1.73 ± 1.34

1.83 ± 1.73

1.90 ± 1.61

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

0.062(0.010,0.115)

0.166(0.091,0.242)

0.236(0.108,0.364)

0.0011

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

0.067(0.014,0.121)

0.174(0.098,0.250)

0.242(0.113,0.372)

0.0029

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

0.030(−0.032,0.093)

0.207(0.117,0.297)

0.224(0.067,0.381)

0.0036

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

0.031(−0.031,0.093)

0.208(0.118,0.298)

0.227(0.070,0.384)

0.0038

< 0.001

TC (mmol/L)

5.92 ± 1.14

5.92 ± 1.13

5.95 ± 1.11

5.97 ± 1.17

0.764

 Crude model

Ref

0.000(−0.048,0.048)

0.026(− 0.042,0.094)

0.047(− 0.069,0.162)

−0.0001

0.351

  Model 1

Ref

−0.016(− 0.063,0.032)

0.045(− 0.023,0.113)

0.113(− 0.003,0.228)

0.0355

0.099

  Model 2

Ref

−0.031(− 0.088,0.027)

0.062(− 0.021,0.145)

0.053(− 0.091,0.197)

0.0376

0.367

  Model 3

Ref

−0.025(− 0.082,0.032)

0.050(− 0.033,0.132)

0.038(− 0.105,0.182)

0.0441

0.493