Table 2 Associations between frequency of spicy food consumption and CVD risk factors

No. of participants

26,413

1728

1005

1179

BMI (kg/m²)

23.67 ± 3.30

24.27 ± 3.32

24.48 ± 3.36

24.85 ± 3.33

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

0.61(0.45,0.77)

0.81(0.61,1.02)

1.18(0.99,1.38)

0.0077

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

0.62(0.46,0.79)

0.85(0.64,1.06)

1.24(1.05,1.44)

0.0226

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

0.62(0.43,0.81)

0.87(0.62,1.12)

1.18(0.95,1.42)

0.0220

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

0.62(0.43,0.81)

0.88(0.63,1.13)

1.19(0.95,1.42)

0.0232

< 0.001

WC (cm)

78.56 ± 8.99

79.56 ± 8.87

80.26 ± 8.83

81.46 ± 9.14

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

0.99(0.55,1.43)

1.70(1.13,2.26)

2.90(2.37,3.42)

0.0052

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

1.41(0.99,1.84)

1.97(1.42,2.52)

2.99(2.48,3.50)

0.0774

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

1.39(0.89,1.89)

1.89(1.25,2.54)

2.80(2.18,3.41)

0.0793

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

1.39(0.89,1.89)

1.91(1.26,2.56)

2.81(2.20,3.43)

0.0806

< 0.001

WHR

0.867 ± 0.068

0.867 ± 0.067

0.874 ± 0.066

0.878 ± 0.067

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

0.001(−0.003,0.004)

0.007(0.002,0.011)

0.011(0.007,0.015)

0.0012

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

0.004(0.001,0.008)

0.009(0.005,0.013)

0.012(0.008,0.016)

0.1434

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

0.005(0.001,0.008)

0.009(0.004,0.014)

0.010(0.006,0.015)

0.1404

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

0.005(0.001,0.008)

0.009(0.004,0.014)

0.010(0.006,0.015)

0.1408

< 0.001

SBP (mmHg)

130.34 ± 22.13

129.60 ± 22.17

130.89 ± 22.30

131.87 ± 22.36

0.044

 Crude model

Ref

−0.74(−1.82,0.34)

0.55(− 0.84,1.95)

1.53(0.24,2.83)

0.0002

0.063

  Model 1

Ref

1.27(0.22,2.31)

2.18(0.84,3.52)

2.67(1.42,3.91)

0.0944

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

1.31(0.06,2.55)

2.31(0.70,3.92)

2.44(0.92,3.97)

0.0778

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

1.32(0.07,2.56)

2.34(0.73,3.95)

2.47(0.95,4.00)

0.0783

< 0.001

DBP (mmHg)

73.47 ± 11.22

74.11 ± 11.19

74.62 ± 11.59

75.24 ± 11.50

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

0.63(0.09,1.18)

1.15(0.44,1.86)

1.77(1.11,2.43)

0.0012

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

0.92(0.37,1.47)

1.26(0.55,1.96)

2.02(1.37,2.67)

0.0330

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

0.79(0.14,1.45)

1.18(0.34,2.03)

1.94(1.14,2.73)

0.0307

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

0.80(0.15,1.46)

1.19(0.34,2.03)

1.96(1.16,2.76)

0.0318

< 0.001

Glucose (mmol/L)

5.73 ± 1.63

5.82 ± 1.85

5.85 ± 1.68

6.01 ± 2.01

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

0.093(0.012,0.175)

0.117(0.012,0.222)

0.278(0.180,0.375)

0.0012

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

0.136(0.054,0.219)

0.173(0.068,0.278)

0.310(0.212,0.407)

0.0154

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

0.150(0.050,0.250)

0.187(0.058,1.316)

0.310(0.188,0.432)

0.0176

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

0.147(0.047,0.246)

0.193(0.063,0.322)

0.310(0.188,0.432)

0.0194

< 0.001

HDL-cholesterol (mmol/L)

1.66 ± 0.41

1.64 ± 0.41

1.63 ± 0.41

1.61 ± 0.39

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

−0.019 (− 0.039,0.000)

−0.031(− 0.056, − 0.005)

− 0.051(− 0.074, − 0.027)

0.0007

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

− 0.018(− 0.037,0.002)

− 0.022(− 0.047,0.003)

−0.045(− 0.068,-0.022)

0.0495

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

−0.012(− 0.035,0.011)

−0.006(− 0.036,0.025)

−0.040(− 0.069,-0.012)

0.0500

0.008

  Model 3

Ref

−0.013(− 0.036,0.010)

−0.004(− 0.034,0.026)

−0.041(− 0.069,-0.013)

0.0561

0.007

LDL-cholesterol (mmol/L)

3.26 ± 0.71

3.31 ± 0.71

3.25 ± 0.68

3.24 ± 0.71

0.022

 Crude model

Ref

0.050 (0.015,0.084)

−0.010 (− 0.054,0.035)

− 0.022 (− 0.063,0.019)

0.0002

0.783

  Model 1

Ref

0.019(−0.015,0.054)

− 0.017(− 0.061,0.027)

−0.028(− 0.068,0.013)

0.0481

0.261

  Model 2

Ref

0.067(0.028,0.106)

0.005(−0.046,0.056)

−0.029(− 0.077,0.019)

0.0610

0.996

  Model 3

Ref

0.065(0.026,0.104)

0.006(−0.044,0.057)

−0.031(− 0.079,0.017)

0.0691

0.961

TG (mmol/L)

1.66 ± 1.22

1.74 ± 1.51

1.77 ± 1.45

1.83 ± 1.49

< 0.001

 Crude model

Ref

0.075 (0.014,0.137)

0.102 (0.023,0.182)

0.161 (0.087,0.234)

0.0008

< 0.001

  Model 1

Ref

0.077(0.015,0.140)

0.107(0.027,0.187)

0.171(0.097,0.245)

0.0027

< 0.001

  Model 2

Ref

0.066(−0.007,0.138)

0.051(−0.043,0.145)

0.185(0.096,0.273)

0.0032

< 0.001

  Model 3

Ref

0.066(−0.007,0.138)

0.053(−0.041,0.147)

0.186(0.097,0.275)

0.0034

< 0.001

TC (mmol/L)

5.92 ± 1.14

5.99 ± 1.16

5.91 ± 1.09

5.88 ± 1.12

0.054

 Crude model

Ref

0.066 (0.011,0.122)

−0.013 (−0.085,0.059)

−0.044 (− 0.111,0.022)

0.0002

0.566

  Model 1

Ref

0.056(0.001,0.112)

0.000(−0.071,0.071)

−0.032(− 0.099,0.034)

0.0354

0.799

  Model 2

Ref

0.064(−0.003,0.130)

−0.013(− 0.099,0.074)

−0.071(− 0.152,0.011)

0.0377

0.315

  Model 3

Ref

0.060(−0.007,0.126)

−0.009(− 0.095,0.077)

−0.073(− 0.154,0.008)

0.0444

0.300