Table 1 Summary of the included SGBP interventions (n = 35)

Davis et al., (2021) USA [30]

1 school year/cluster RCT

16 schools (n = 3,135)

8–11 years old

Low²

9 monthly parent lessons: 1 hour gardening, nutrition and cooking lessons – The parent curriculum also included the following topics; importance of family eating, healthy shopping, and increasing home available and access of healthy foods.

Garden Leadership Committee formation, student gardening, nutrition, and cooking lessons (either a garden taste-test (7 lessons) or a cooking activity), 9 monthly parent lessons

(n = 1,412)

Compare: delayed intervention

(n = 1,723)

1) F&V and sugar sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption: 2015 School Physical Activity and Nutrition dietary screener

2) Food and meal choice behaviours, self-efficacy to cook and/or prepare F&V and gardening, willingness to try and preferences for F&V, cooking and gardening attitudes, nutrition and gardening knowledge, and child food security: questionnaire

Barnard et al., (2020) USA [31]

4 years/pre-post study

4 schools (n = 4,300)

2–19 years old

High¹

Student and family cooking events

School Gardens and Classroom Lessons (n = 172 lessons), Student and Family Cooking Events, Carrot Camp (n = 206), Sprout Scouts (n = 52)

No control group

(n = 0)

1) Knowledge, attitudes, and awareness of the programme: teacher survey

2) Parent/caregiver knowledge and attitudes related to the programme and its potential impact on children: parent/caregiver survey

3) F&V consumption:parent/caregiver survey

Kim et al., (2020) South Korea [32]

12 weeks/pre-post-test experimental design

2 schools (n = 202)

Average age: 11.6 (± 1.5) years old

–

Gardening, nutritional education, and cooking activities utilizing harvests

(n = 202)

No control group

(n = 0)

1) Self-efficacy: dietary self-efficacy questionnaire

2) Outcome expectancies for V consumption: outcome expectation questionnaire

3) Food neophobia: 10-item food neophobia scale

4) V preference: list of representative vegetables from the Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans 2015

5) Nutrition and gardening knowledge: questionnaire based on Korean elementary textbooks

6) V intake: dietary record sheet

Schreinemachers et al., (2020) Nepal [33]

1 year/cluster RCT

30 schools (n = 779)

8–12 years old

High¹

Home gardening

Consisted of a physical garden for hands-on experience in vegetable growing and nutrition education following a booklet with 23 weekly learning modules; children’s caregivers additionally received support to improve their home gardens (Children: 438; parents 437)

Control: no intervention (child: 436; parents 436)

1) V intake: 24-hour recall

2) Food and nutrition knowledge: 15 MCQ

3) Agricultural knowledge: 14 photos of common garden pests and beneficial insects

4) Liking for V: 15 photos of V and recording their liking

5) Snack choices, food practise: questionnaire

Shrestha et al., (2020) Nepal [34]

5 months/cluster RCT

12 schools (n = 682)

8–17 years old

–

School gardening programme (n = 172)

Compare: school gardening programme with complementary WASH, health and nutrition interventions

(n = 197)

Control: no intervention (n = 313)

1) Dietary intake: FFQ and 24-hour recall questionnaire

2) Nutrition knowledge: questionnaire

van den Berg et al., (2020) USA [35]

6 months/ non-RCT

28 low-income schools (n = 1,326)

8–9 years old (42% Hispanic; 78% free/reduced lunch).

Low²

LEGE: gardens built with parents, took home recipe card and family stories.

WAT! Program: family engagement pieces (bonus miles form), end-of-program celebration, weekly English and Spanish newsletters featuring both healthy physical and eating tips.

(Learn! Grow! Eat! Go! [LGEG]) – school garden & school curriculum

(n = 347)

Compare 1: Physical activity (PA) intervention (Walk Across Texas [WAT!]) (n = 336)

Compare 2: both gardening and PA intervention (combined) (n = 358)

Control: delayed intervention (n = 285)

1) V preference, nutrition knowledge, gardening with parents, previous day V consumption: student surveys

2) Home V availability: parent surveys

Khan et al., (2019) UK [36]

1 school year/mix method study – randomised controlled

1 school (n = 60)

9–10 years old

–

Gardening intervention & a Meat-Free Monday session, physical activity & knowledge of nutrition (n = 30)

Compare: delayed intervention (n = 30)

1) Attitude towards, frequency of and preference for eating F&V: self-report questionnaire

2) Experiences of gardening outdoors, attitudes to eating F&V: focus group interview

Landry et al., (2019) USA [37]

12 weeks/RCT

4 schools (n = 290)

Low income, primarily Hispanic/ Latino, 8–11 years old

–

LA Sprouts: cooking and nutrition curriculum & gardening curriculum (n = 160)

Compare: delayed intervention (n = 130)

1) Dietary intake: 2007 Block Kids Food Screeners (adapted from the Block Kids 2004 FFQ)

2) Self-efficacy to cook F&V: adapted questionnaire from Baranowski et al., 2000

3) Motivation to cook and garden F&V: motivation for Health Behaving from the Treatment and Self-Regulation Questionnaire

Massarani et al., (2019) Rio de Janeiro [38]

3 years/pre-post study

1 school (n = 89)

11–12 years old adolescent athletes (14–15 years old at follow up)

Low²

Building of school garden and experimental kitchen with the direct involvement of parents; maintenance of the garden (organisation and planning of the school garden); attend the semi-annual meeting

School gardening & experimental kitchen activities & health promotion class (n = 89)

No control group

1) Dietary intake: FFQ of 12 food items

Nele Huys et al., (2019) Ghent [39]

9 weeks/non-randomised controlled

17 schools (n = 551)

10–12 years old

–

Gardening activity: sowing, taking care of and harvesting vegetables; nutrition education in classroom (n = 312)

Control: no intervention (n = 239)

1) Children’s V intake and determinants (knowledge and awareness): questionnaires

2) Program evaluation: process evaluation questionnaire (teacher and children)

Schreinemachers et al., (2019) Burkina Faso [40]

1 year/ cluster RCT

30 schools (n = 1,760)

8–14 years old

High¹

Decided together what vegetables to grow in the school garden; helped to prepare the school garden and to fence it with locally available materials; helped to find water in the dry season and helped with land preparation and fencing.

School gardening; complementary agriculture, nutrition and WASH education; local farmers and other community members in school garden (2014: n = 500; 2015: n = 400)

Control: no intervention (2014: n = 500; 2015 n = 400)

1) F&V preferences and liking: rating for 12 V & 10 snack choices

2) F&V intake: 24-hour recall

3) F&V awareness: give the correct names of 20 common F&V from colour photos

4) Food, nutrition and WASH knowledge: test adjusted from Parmer et al., 2009 & Oldewage-Theron and Egal, 2010

5) Agriculture knowledge: photo test

Leuven et al., (2018) Netherlands [41]

7 months/non-randomised controlled

3 schools

(n = 150)

10–12 years old

–

Garden and nutritionbased classroom lessons, 15 outdoor gardening lessons, and 1 harvesting and cooking lesson Short term (n = 106) Long term (n = 52)

Control: no intervention (n = 65)

1) Capability to identify V, preference for those V, and the opinion regarding V, gardening, and outdoor activity: questionnaire

Taylor et al., (2018) USA [42]

1 year/RCT

2 schools (n = 294)

9–10 years old

Low²

Parent newsletters

Inquiry-based, garden-enhanced nutrition curriculum, in-class cooking demonstrations, take-home activities, family newsletters, a health fair, and school site-specific wellness committees (n = 161)

Compare: delayed intervention (n = 133)

1) Dietary intake: digital images of students’ lunch trays

Wells et al., (2018) USA [43]

2 years/group RCT

46 schools (n = 2,768)

7–11 years old low-income children (8–12 years old in second year intervention)

–

School gardening activities and nutrition education

(n = 1,491)

Control: no intervention (n = 1,277)

1) F&V availability at home: modified version of Baranowski’s GEM-FJV Availability assessment

Gatto et al., (2017) USA [44]

12 weeks/ RCT

4 schools (n = 375)

Low income, primarily Hispanic/ Latino, 8–11 years old

Low²

Bimonthly cooking/nutrition and gardening classes offered to the parents

LA Sprouts: 45-min interactive cooking/nutrition lesson & 45-min gardening lesson (n = 172)

Compare: delayed intervention (n = 147)

1) Dietary intake: 2007 Block Kids Food Screeners (adapted from the Block Kids 2004 FFQ)

Lee et al., (2017) USA [45]

6 weeks (12 one-hour sessions)/pre-post study

6 centres (n = 89)

3–5 years old

Low²

3 newsletters (health benefits of adequate F&V intake, strategies for improving home intake); encouraged to complete activities with children – selecting a favourite recipe for a class recipe book

Lessons include songs, games, and interactive learning activities involving garden maintenance and taste tests (n = 89)

No control group

1) Dietary intake: non-consecutive 3-day food records from parents

2) F&V Availability (Home): the F&V Home Availability questionnaire

Schreinemachers et al., (2017) Bhutan [27]

1 year/ cluster RCT

18 schools (n = 517)

9–15 years old

High¹

Cultivation of vegetables with children; provided advice, gardening tools and other materials and advised schoolteachers on crops and varieties to grow. Teachers visited the parents at home and encouraged home gardening

School garden; weekly lessons in gardening, nutrition, and water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH); promotion activities: poster displays, poem displays on school boards, songs, nutrition charts, vegetable charts, pledges (2014: no data; 2015: n = 260)

Control: no intervention (2014: no data; 2015: n = 265)

1) F&V preferences and liking: rating for 12 V + 10 snack choices

2) F&V intake: 24-hour recall

3) F&V awareness: give the correct names of 20 common F&V from colour photos

4) Food, nutrition and WASH knowledge: Parmer et al., 2009 & Oldewage-Theron and Egal, 2010

5) Agriculture knowledge: photo test

Schreinemachers et al., (2017) Nepal [26]

1 year/ cluster RCT

30 schools (n = 1,370)

10–15 years old, low income

A school garden, gardening, nutrition and WASH education and promotional materials for children and parents (poster display, distribution of handouts about nutritious food and hand washing) (2014: n = 429; 2015: n = 369)

Control: no intervention (2014: n = 846; 2015: n = 416)

Davis et al., (2016) USA [46]

12 weeks/ RCT

4 schools (n = 304)

Low income, primarily Hispanic/ Latino, 8–11 years old

–

LA Sprouts participants: weekly 45-minute interactive cooking and nutrition education lesson, 45-minute interactive gardening lesson, and visits to a local farmers’ market 4 times during intervention (n = 167)

Compare: delayed intervention (n = 137)

1) F&V preferences and identification; self-efficacy to eat, cook and garden F&V; nutrition & gardening knowledge, attitudes about cooking and gardening & current home gardening practices; willingness to try F&V: questionnaire

2) Motivation to eat, cook F&V & gardening: Treatment and Self-Regulation Questionnaire

Duncan et al., (2015) UK [47]

12 weeks/non-randomised controlled

2 schools (n = 77)

4–11 years old

–

Theory-based intervention – a school garden, cooking lessons, exploring plants and growth in science and literacy (n = 46)

Control: no intervention (n = 31)

1) F&V consumption: measures of the TPB related to F&V consumption

2) F&V consumption behaviour: Day in the Life Questionnaire (DILQ)

Hanbazaza et al., (2015) Canada [21]

2 school years/pre-post study

1 school (n = 116)

6–12 years old

–

Classroom gardening (Earth Box container gardening) & a healthy F&V snack program (n = 66)

No control group

1) Children’s knowledge of F&V: asking children to write down 5 V&F that they knew

2) F&V preferences and home consumption: an adapted questionnaire

Sharma et al., (2015) USA [48]

8 weeks/ pre-post study

2 centres (n = 103)

3–5 years old

Low²

Children took their plants home to share with their families to encourage dialogue with parents; invite parent to End-of-program celebration

8 PLANT Garden lessons (teacher-led) with hands-on activities emphasizing gardening and nutrition (n = 103)

No control group

1) Preference and willingness to try F&Vs among pre-schoolers: pre − post self-reported parent surveys

Spears-Lanoix et al., (2015) USA [49]

5 months/ pre-post study

1 school (n = 44)

8–9 years old

High¹

Gardening together, snacks and meals together, dinners eaten together, and doing physical activity together.

JMG: youth horticulture classroom curriculum – building a class garden, growing seven V, tasting and rating each V, raw, and participating in V recipe tasting

Compare: WAT (PA intervention) – family bonus miles, waling Bingo, and class activity breaks (Children: n = 44, parents: n = 34)

1) Food availability: parent survey

2) V preference and consumption: student self-reported questionnaire

3) Nutrition and health knowledge: questions about healthy living

Wells et al., (2015) USA [50]

2-years (40 lessons)/RCT

49 schools (n = 3,061)

6–12 years old

–

Nutrition and garden-based lessons & gardening activities (n = 1,622)

Control: no intervention (n = 1,439)

1) Science knowledge: 7-item MCQ selected from the University of Missouri (UM) ‘Eating from the Garden Curriculum’ survey

Bontrager Yoder et al., (2014) USA [3]

1 year/quasi-experimental baseline and follow-up assessments

9 schools (n = 1,117)

8–11 years old

–

Farm to School programme: Harvest of the Month, school garden, locally sourced produce in school meals & classroom lessons (n = 1,117)

No control group

1) Knowledge of food, nutrition, and agriculture; attitudes toward trying FV; perception/self-efficacy for eating healthfully, and preference for, exposure of and willingness to try F&V: questionnaire

2) Dietary intake: FFQ, lunch tray photo observation

Cotter et al., (2013) Portugal [51]

6 months/cluster RCT

1 school (n = 155)

10–12 years old

–

Lessons (dangers of high salt intake), gardening activities and collection of herbs for salt substitute at home (n = 58)

Compare: weekly lessons about the dangers of high salt intake (n = 47)

Control: no intervention (n = 34)

1) Estimated salt intake: derived from 24-h urinary collection (1 mEq/24 h sodium 1/4 0.058 g per day salt)

Gibbs et al., (2013) Australia [52]

2.5 years/ pre-post study

12 schools (n = 764)

8–12 years old

Low²

Did not specify

Gardening class and kitchen class (n = 764)

No control group

1) Willingness to try new foods, knowledge & capacity to describe foods, and healthy eating: separate focus group discussions, parent and child questionnaire

Gatto et al., (2012) USA [53]

12 weeks/ non-RCT

1 school (n = 104)

Latino 9–11 years old, more than half were overweight or obese

Low²

Did not specify

LA Sprouts participants: weekly 45-minute interactive cooking and nutrition education lesson, 45-minute interactive gardening lesson and visits to a local farmers’ market 4 times during intervention (n = 34)

Compare: delayed intervention (n = 70)

1) Motivation for healthy eating: Treatment and Self-Regulation Questionnaire 2) Attitudes About, Preferences for, Perceptions, and Self-Efficacy to Eat and Cook F&V: validated questionnaire

Jaenke et al., (2012) Australia [54]

10 weeks/pre-post study

2 schools (n = 127)

11–12 years old

Low²

3 newsletters (health benefits of adequate F&V intake, strategies for improving home intake); encouraged to complete activities with their children – selecting a favourite recipe for a class recipe book

Nutrition education & gardening intervention (with kitchen-based activities) (n = 35)

Compare: nutrition education only (n = 35)

Control: no intervention (n = 57)

1) Food preference, willingness to taste: questionnaire +five-item food preference assessment tool

2) F&V intake: 2 repeat 24-hour recalls

Davis et al., (2011) USA [55]

12 weeks/ non-RCT

1 school (n = 104)

Latino 9–11 years old, more than half were overweight or obese

Low²

3 separate 60-minute parental nutrition and gardening classes

LA Sprouts participants: weekly 45-minute interactive cooking and nutrition education lesson, 45-minute interactive gardening lesson and visits to a local farmers’ market 4 times during intervention (n = 34)

Compare: delayed intervention (n = 70)

1) Dietary intake: 2007 Block Kids Food Screeners (adapted from the Block Kids 2004 FFQ)

Ratcliffe et al., (2011) USA [22]

13 weeks/non-randomised controlled

3 schools (n = 320)

11–13 years old

–

Hands-on gardening & garden-based learning activities integrated into science lesson (n = 170)

Compare: only garden-based sessions integrated into science class (n = 150)

1) Knowledge, attitude and behaviour: Garden Vegetables Frequency Questionnaire (GVFQ) and the Taste Test;

2) V consumption: 24-hour recall

Morgan et al., (2010) Australia [56]

10 weeks/non-RCT

2 schools (n = 127)

11–12 years old

Low²

3 newsletters (health benefits of adequate F&V intake, strategies for improving home intake); encouraged to complete activities with their children – selecting a favourite recipe for a class recipe book

Nutrition education & gardening intervention (with kitchen-based activities) (n = 35)

Compare: nutrition education only (n = 35) Control: no intervention (n = 57)

1) F&V intake: 24 hr. recall

2) V preference: ‘taste and rate’ methods developed by Birch and Sullivan

3) F&V knowledge: questionnaire used in US ‘Gimme 5’ intervention

4) Quality of school life: the quality of school life (QoSL) instrument “

Parmer et al., (2009) USA [57]

28 weeks/ non-randomised controlled

1 school (n = 115)

7–8 years old

–

Nutrition education & gardening intervention (n = 39)

Compare: nutrition education only (n = 37)

Control: no intervention (n = 39)

1) F&V intake: F&V survey; lunchroom observation

2) F&V preference: F&V preference questionnaire, lunchroom observation

3) Nutrition knowledge: questionnaire

Somerset et al., (2009) Australia [58]

12 months/ intervention trial

1 school (n = 252)

9–13 years old in a low socio-economic area

–

Introduction of a school-based food garden, (n = 130)

Compare: historical control design (n = 132)

1) Attitudes towards F&V: the attitudes questionnaire

2) Nutrition knowledge: F&V identification survey

McAleese et al., (2007) USA [59]

12 weeks/non-randomised controlled

3 schools (n = 99)

10–13 years old

–

Garden-based activities & nutrition education (n = 45)

Compare: nutrition education only (n = 25)

Control: no intervention (n = 25)

1) Dietary intake: three 24-hour food recall workbooks