Table 4 Mixed effect analysis of determinants of PNC among young women in sub-Saharan Africa

Fixed effects

Year of survey

 2010

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 2011

0.43^*** [0.33, 0.57]

0.48^*** [0.36, 0.63]

 2012

0.23^*** [0.18, 0.29]

0.43^*** [0.34, 0.56]

 2013

0.27^*** [0.21, 0.35]

0.23^*** [0.18, 0.30]

 2014

0.13^*** [0.11, 0.16]

0.23^*** [0.19, 0.29]

 2015

0.18^*** [0.14, 0.23]

0.42^*** [0.32, 0.54]

 2016

0.05^*** [0.04, 0.07]

0.09^*** [0.07, 0.11]

 2017

0.01^*** [0.01, 0.02]

0.02^*** [0.01, 0.02]

 2018

0.05^*** [0.04, 0.06]

0.05^*** [0.04, 0.06]

 2019

0.14^*** [0.11, 0.17]

0.23^*** [0.18, 0.29]

Maternal age

 15–19

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 20–24

1.28^*** [1.18, 1.39]

1.16^*** [1.07, 1.26]

Maternal educational level

 No education

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Primary

1.28^*** [1.17, 1.39]

1.21^*** [1.11, 1.32]

 Secondary

1.37^*** [1.24, 1.51]

1.30^*** [1.17, 1.44]

 Higher

1.18 [0.91, 1.52]

1.07 [0.82, 1.39]

Marital status

 Married

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Cohabiting

0.69^*** [0.63, 0.75]

0.90^* [0.82, 0.99]

Maternal current working status

 Not working

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Working

1.20^*** [1.13, 1.28]

1.26^*** [1.18, 1.34]

Partner’s age

 15–24

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 25–34

0.97 [0.91, 1.05]

0.98 [0.90, 1.06]

 35–44

0.94 [0.85, 1.04]

0.96 [0.87, 1.06]

 45 + 

0.93 [0.80, 1.09]

0.94 [0.80, 1.10]

Partner educational level

 No education

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Primary

1.11^* [1.02, 1.21]

1.08 [0.98, 1.18]

 Secondary

1.08 [0.99, 1.19]

1.15^** [1.05, 1.27]

 Higher

1.02 [0.88, 1.19]

1.06 [0.91, 1.24]

Religion

 Christianity

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Islamic

0.88^** [0.81, 0.96]

0.76^*** [0.69, 0.83]

 African Traditional

0.98 [0.75, 1.29]

0.75^* [0.57, 0.99]

 No religion

1.32^** [1.09, 1.61]

1.02 [0.83, 1.26]

 Others

0.38^*** [0.24, 0.61]

0.35^*** [0.21, 0.59]

Parity

 1

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 2

0.89^*** [0.84, 0.95]

0.94 [0.89, 1.01]

 3

0.79^*** [0.73, 0.86]

0.91^* [0.83, 0.99]

 4 or more

0.62^*** [0.54, 0.71]

0.76^*** [0.66, 0.87]

Ownership of health insurance

 No

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Yes

1.54^*** [1.29, 1.85]

1.40^*** [1.17, 1.69]

Mass media exposure

 No

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Yes

1.51^*** [1.42, 1.60]

1.40^*** [1.32, 1.50]

Person who usually decides on respondent’s healthcare

 Respondent alone

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Respondent and partner

0.76^*** [0.69, 0.84]

0.87^** [0.78, 0.96]

 Partner alone

0.70^*** [0.64, 0.78]

0.86^** [0.77, 0.96]

 Someone else or other

0.72^* [0.53, 0.98]

0.84 [0.61, 1.17]

Person who usually decides on large household purchases

 Respondent alone

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Respondent and partner

1.14^* [1.02, 1.29]

1.06 [0.94, 1.20]

 Partner alone

1.13^* [1.01, 1.27]

1.04 [0.92, 1.17]

 Someone else or other

1.48^** [1.13, 1.95]

1.37^* [1.04, 1.82]

Person who usually decides on visits to family or relatives

 Respondent alone

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Respondent and partner

1.09 [0.99, 1.19]

1.06 [0.96, 1.17]

 Partner alone

0.83^*** [0.76, 0.91]

0.82^*** [0.74, 0.90]

 Someone else or other

0.99 [0.76, 1.31]

0.88 [0.66, 1.17]

Barrier to healthcare

 No

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Yes

0.78^*** [0.73, 0.83]

0.86^*** [0.81, 0.92]

Wealth index

 Poorest

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Poorer

1.13^** [1.05, 1.22]

1.10^* [1.01, 1.19]

 Middle

1.20^*** [1.10, 1.30]

1.08 [0.98, 1.18]

 Richer

1.33^*** [1.21, 1.47]

1.14^* [1.02, 1.27]

 Richest

1.32^*** [1.18, 1.48]

1.09 [0.96, 1.25]

Sex of household head

 Male

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Female

1.21^*** [1.13, 1.30]

1.08 [1.00, 1.17]

Residence

 Urban

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Rural

0.70^*** [0.63, 0.76]

0.83^*** [0.75, 0.91]

Subregions

 Southern

1 [1.00, 1.00]

1 [1.00, 1.00]

 Central

0.18^*** [0.15, 0.22]

0.20^*** [0.16, 0.25]

 Eastern

0.34^*** [0.28, 0.41]

0.66^*** [0.53, 0.82]

 Western

0.41^*** [0.34, 0.50]

0.93 [0.74, 1.17]

Random effect

 PSU variance (95% CI)

0.311 [0.253—0.383]

0.177 [0.140 – 0.225]

0.318 [0.257–0.394]

0.175 [0.139–0.220]

 ICC

0.0864322

0.051193

0.088206

0.0504016

 Wald chi-square

Reference

3198.44***

626.28***

3706.80***

Model fitness

 Log-likelihood

-28,519.644

-24,610.945

-27,772.427

-23,857.225

 AIC

57,043.29

49,305.89

55,566.85

47,816.45

 N

43,786

43,786

43,786

43,786

 Number of clusters

1,478

1,478

1,478

1,478