Table 2 Lipid-lowering medication (LLM) use among high-risk participants
|  | Cardiovascular diseases (CVD), n = 596 | Diabetes, n = 1799 | 10-year Framingham general cardiovascular risk (FRS-CVD) > 20%, n^ = 2478 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Not on LLM, n (%) | On LLM, n (%) | p-value | Not on LLM, n (%) | On LLM, n (%) | p-value | Not on LLM, n (%) | On LLM, n (%) | p-value | |
Overall (n, %) | 439 (74.2) | 153 (25.8) | Â | 1491 (82.9) | 308 (17.1) | Â | 2217 (89.5) | 261 (10.5) | Â |
Age groups (years) | |||||||||
 30–39 | 15 (93.75) | 1 (6.25) | 0.026* | 81 (93.10) | 6 (6.90) | 0.000* | 92 (100.00) | 0 (0) | 0.001* |
 40–49 | 83 (83.00) | 17 (17.00) |  | 343 (88.17) | 46 (11.83) |  | 107 (84.25) | 20 (15.75) |  |
 50–59 | 136 (70.10) | 58 (29.90) |  | 549 (82.19) | 119 (17.81) |  | 685(87.93) | 94 (12.07) |  |
 ≥60 | 205 (72.70) | 77 (27.30) |  | 518 (79.08) | 137 (20.92) |  | 1333 (90.07) | 147 (9.93) |  |
Gender | |||||||||
 Male | 238 (70.62) | 99 (29.38) | 0.024* | 716 (80.72) | 171 (19.28) | 0.017* | 1535 (89.50) | 180 (10.50) | 0.928 |
 Female | 201 (78.82) | 54 (21.18) |  | 775 (84.98) | 137 (15.02) |  | 682 (89.38) | 81 (10.62) |  |
Ethnicity | |||||||||
 Malay | 300 (72.99) | 111 (27.01) | 0.001* | 1285 (83.93) | 246 (16.07) | 0.000* | 1752 (90.17) | 191 (9.83) | 0.000* |
 Chinese | 32 (65.31) | 17 (34.69) |  | 76 (66.67) | 38 (33.33) |  | 155 (74.16) | 54 (25.84) |  |
 Indian | 10 (50.00) | 10 (50.00) |  | 71 (78.02) | 20 (21.98) |  | 47 (79.66) | 12 (20.34) |  |
 Indigenous | 97 (86.61) | 15 (13.39) |  | 59 (93.65) | 4 (6.35) |  | 263 (98.50) | 4 (1.50) |  |
Education attainment | |||||||||
 No formal education | 106 (84.13) | 20 (15.87) | 0.000* | 181 (89.60) | 21 (10.40) | 0.000* | 450 (95.14) | 23 (4.86) | 0.000* |
 Primary school | 153 (78.46) | 42 (21.54) |  | 462 (85.24) | 80 (14.76) |  | 779 (91.76) | 70 (8.24) |  |
 Secondary school | 122 (72.62) | 46 (27.38) |  | 560 (83.09) | 114 (16.91) |  | 592 (86.68) | 91 (13.32) |  |
 Tertiary | 42 (51.22) | 40 (48.78) |  | 218 (74.66) | 74 (25.34) |  | 279 (81.58) | 63 (18.42) |  |
Location | |||||||||
 Urban | 150 (59.52) | 102 (40.48) | 0.000* | 762 (77.36) | 223 (22.64) | 0.000* | 989 (84.10) | 187 (15.90) | 0.000* |
 Rural | 289 (85.00) | 51 (15.00) |  | 729 (89.56) | 85 (10.44) |  | 1228 (94.32) | 74 (5.68) |  |
Occupation | |||||||||
 Homemaker/unemployed | 177 (70.52) | 74 (29.48) | 0.000* | 643 (81.39) | 147 (18.61) | 0.004* | 784 (87.99) | 107 (12.01) | 0.000* |
 Semi-skilled | 220 (83.02) | 45 (16.98) |  | 615 (86.13) | 99 (13.87) |  | 1142 (92.69) | 90 (7.31) |  |
 Skilled workers | 28 (63.64) | 16 (36.36) |  | 152 (82.16) | 33 (17.84) |  | 179 (82.87) | 37 (17.13) |  |
 Managerial and Professional | 14 (43.75) | 18 (56.25) |  | 81 (73.64) | 29 (26.36) |  | 112 (80.58) | 27 (19.42) |  |
Household income group | |||||||||
 Bottom 40% (≤ RM 4849) | 226 (83.39) | 45 (16.61) | < 0.001+ | 656 (87.58) | 93 (12.42) | 0.000* | 1028 (92.45) | 84 (7.55) | 0.001* |
 Middle 40% – Top 20% (≥ RM 4850) | 12 (50.00) | 12 (50.00) |  | 60 (73.17) | 22 (26.83) |  | 80 (82.47) | 17 (17.53) |  |
Smoking status | |||||||||
 Non-smoker | 283 (77.75) | 81 (22.25) | 0.001* | 1068 (82.85) | 221 (17.15) | 0.000* | 1295 (88.22) | 173 (11.78) | 0.003* |
 Previous smoker | 64 (80.00) | 16 (20.00) |  | 209 (90.48) | 22 (9.52) |  | 324 (94.46) | 19 (5.54) |  |
 Current smoker | 86 (62.77) | 51 (37.23) |  | 193 (75.98) | 61 (24.02) |  | 598 (89.66) | 69 (10.34) |  |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | |||||||||
 Underweight (< 18.5) | 24 (88.89) | 3 (11.11) | 0.000* | 18 (90.00) | 2 (10.00) | 0.469 | 66 (98.51) | 1 (1.49) | 0.000* |
 Normal (18.5–22.9) | 109 (90.08) | 12 (9.92) |  | 225 (85.55) | 38 (14.45) |  | 490 (93.51) | 34 (6.49) |  |
 Overweight (23–27.4) | 155 (70.14) | 66 (29.86) |  | 524 (81.88) | 116 (18.13) |  | 871 (88.70) | 111 (11.30) |  |
 Obese (≥ 27.5) | 145 (67.76) | 69 (32.24) |  | 708 (82.61) | 149 (17.39) |  | 765 (87.03) | 114 (12.97) |  |
Waist-hip ratio | |||||||||
 Normal | 149 (82.78) | 31 (17.22) | 0.001* | 404 (87.45) | 58 (12.55) | 0.003* | 637 (92.59) | 51 (7.41) | 0.001* |
 Abdominal obesity (Male ≥0.90; female ≥0.85) | 263 (69.21) | 117 (30.79) |  | 996 (81.37) | 228 (18.63) |  | 1442 (88.14) | 194 (11.86) |  |
Dyslipidaemia subtypes | |||||||||
 Hypercholesterolaemia | 250 (76.45) | 77 (23.55) | 0.180 | 992 (85.81) | 164 (14.19) | 0.000* | 1593 (90.36) | 170 (9.64) | 0.023* |
 High LDL-c | 215 (77.62) | 62 (22.38) | 0.081 | 846 (87.31) | 123 (12.69) | 0.000* | 1423 (91.39) | 134 (8.61) | 0.000* |
 Hypertriglyceridaemia | 175 (72.92) | 65 (27.08) | 0.506 | 809 (84.36) | 150 (15.64) | 0.061 | 1143 (88.67) | 146 (11.33) | 0.180 |
 Low HDL-c | 168 (78.14) | 47 (21.86) | 0.106 | 635 (87.23) | 93 (12.77) | 0.000* | 909 (91.36) | 86 (8.64) | 0.012* |