Table 4 Ghana: summary statistics of study variables, sociodemographic variables regressed on vision difficulty, stratified by gender

Prevalence

14.67[95% CI: 13.27–16.19]

19.12[95% CI: 18.16–20.12]

Crude odds ratio

Adjusted odds ratio

Crude odds ratio

Adjusted odds ratio

Age

P < 0.001

P < 0.001

  < 20

11.75

18.19

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 20–29

12.36

14.30

1.059 [0.692,1.619]

1.122 [0.714,1.763]

0.750* [0.588,0.957]

0.803 [0.627,1.029]

 30–39

10.53

15.35

0.884 [0.575,1.359]

1.074 [0.627,1.840]

0.816 [0.647,1.029]

0.929 [0.713,1.212]

 40+

24.00

31.51

2.371*** [1.556,3.612]

3.109*** [1.739,5.561]

2.069*** [1.610,2.659]

2.400*** [1.786,3.225]

Educational level

P = 0.145

P = 0.019

 Pre-primary or none

17.81

18.91

1.170 [0.754,1.815]

0.790 [0.468,1.335]

1.455* [1.074,1.970]

1.233 [0.877,1.734]

 Primary

16.64

20.25

1.078 [0.667,1.743]

0.834 [0.471,1.475]

1.584** [1.152,2.180]

1.328 [0.944,1.867]

 JSS/JHS/Middle

14.35

19.59

0.905 [0.627,1.305]

0.655 [0.423,1.013]

1.520** [1.136,2.033]

1.365* [1.005,1.853]

 SSS/SHS/ Secondary

12.72

19.3

0.787 [0.535,1.158]

0.706 [0.460,1.084]

1.492** [1.115,1.996]

1.509** [1.126,2.023]

 Higher

15.62

13.82

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Marital status

P = 0.001

P < 0.001

 Currently married/in union

15.65

19.46

1.276* [1.016,1.604]

0.765 [0.523,1.120]

1.185* [1.034,1.358]

0.903 [0.749,1.088]

 Formerly married/in union

20.61

21.92

1.786* [1.045,3.052]

1.130 [0.617,2.069]

1.377** [1.108,1.712]

0.892 [0.689,1.156]

 Never married/in union

12.69

16.93

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Health insurance

P = 0.327

P = 0.196

 With insurance

15.06

18.6

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Without insurance

14.44

19.8

0.952 [0.732,1.238]

0.847 [0.629,1.141]

1.081 [0.946,1.235]

1.022 [0.884,1.182]

Wealth index

P = 0.125

P = 0.002

 Poorest

16.25

19.26

1.324* [1.032,1.697]

1.648 [0.991,2.741]

0.817** [0.716,0.932]

1.085 [0.819,1.435]

 Poorer

15.45

17.77

1.339* [1.014,1.770]

1.456 [0.867,2.445]

0.785** [0.679,0.908]

0.881 [0.675,1.150]

 Middle

16.17

18.15

1.329* [1.011,1.747]

1.606* [1.040,2.481]

0.823** [0.716,0.947]

0.904 [0.715,1.144]

 Richer

14.21

19.63

1.142 [0.869,1.502]

1.335 [0.890,2.002]

0.944 [0.825,1.080]

0.981 [0.804,1.198]

 Richest

12.34

20.43

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

Place of residence

P = 0.242

P = 0.044

 Urban

13.91

19.08

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref

 Rural

15.41

19.17

1.127 [0.843,1.506]

0.996 [0.683,1.450]

1.005 [0.875,1.155]

1.150 [0.958,1.381]

Region of residence

P < 0.001

P < 0.001

 Western

6.21

19.5

0.949 [0.394,2.283]

1.207 [0.487,2.992]

1.052 [0.744,1.487]

1.127 [0.770,1.648]

 Central

19.08

20.02

3.376*** [1.831,6.226]

4.931*** [2.483,9.792]

1.087 [0.786,1.504]

1.137 [0.797,1.623]

 Accra

12.54

24.46

2.053* [1.119,3.767]

2.875** [1.437,5.751]

1.407* [1.062,1.864]

1.550** [1.121,2.144]

 Volta

20.17

21.62

3.619*** [2.003,6.538]

4.530*** [2.412,8.509]

1.198 [0.879,1.633]

1.230 [0.883,1.712]

 Eastern

17.57

17.22

3.053*** [1.649,5.652]

3.909*** [1.996,7.654]

0.903 [0.634,1.288]

0.906 [0.615,1.335]

 Ashanti

15.05

19.45

2.537** [1.313,4.902]

3.252*** [1.663,6.359]

1.049 [0.780,1.409]

1.120 [0.813,1.543]

 Brong Ahafo

17.18

16.18

2.970***[1.601,5.510]

3.588*** [1.860,6.921]

0.839 [0.604,1.165]

0.877 [0.614,1.251]

 Northern

14.74

14.48

2.475** [1.267,4.835]

2.615** [1.317,5.192]

0.735 [0.526,1.027]

0.761 [0.538,1.078]

 Upper West

11.28

11.59

1.821 [0.958,3.465]

2.033* [1.041,3.972]

0.570** [0.398,0.814]

0.570** [0.397,0.820]

 Upper East

6.53

18.71

Ref

Ref

Ref

Ref