From: Educational differences in diabetes and diabetes self-management behaviours in WHO SAGE countries
 | Ghana (N = 137*) | India (N = 413*) | South Africa (N = 239*) | China (N = 654*) | Mexico (N = 315*) | Russia (N = 187) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Leisure activity | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) |
Unadjusted | ||||||
 Education | 1·16 (1·08, 1·25) | 1·15 (1·08, 1·23) | 1·18 (1·02, 1·37) | 1·03 (0.98, 1·08) | 1·09 (0·95, 1·27) | 1·14 (1·04, 1·25) |
p < 0·001 | p < 0·001 | p = 0·03 | p = 0.18 | p = 0·21 | p = 0.01 | |
Adjustment 1 | ||||||
 Education | 1·15 (1·05, 1·26) | 1·11 (1·03, 1·19) | 1·16 (1·00, 1·35) | 0·97 (0·92, 1·03) | 1·11 (0·96, 1·29) | 1·04 (0·84, 1·28) |
p = 0.003 | p = 0·01 | p = 0·05 | p = 0·36 | p = 0·15 | p = 0·74 | |
Adjustment 2 | ||||||
 Education | 1·15 (1·05, 1·26) | 1·11 (1·03, 1·21) | 1·07 (0·88, 1·30) | 0·97 (0·92, 1·03) | – | 1.05 (0.86, 1.27) |
p = 0.002 | p = 0·01 | p = 0·48 | p = 0·34 |  | p = 0.65 | |
Transport activity | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) |
Unadjusted | ||||||
 Education | 1·06 (0.99, 1·13) | 1·00 (0·94, 1·05) | 1·03 (0·91, 1·17) | 1·02 (0·98, 1·06) | 0·95 (0·86, 1·05) | 1·17 (1·03, 1·32) |
p = 0·08 | p = 0·88 | p = 0·61 | p = 0·33 | p = 0·31 | p = 0·02 | |
Adjustment 1 | ||||||
 Education | 1·03 (0·95, 1·12) | 1·00 (0·95, 1·07) | 1·03 (0·91, 1·17) | 0·97 (0·93, 1·01) | 0·90 (0·82, 0·99) | 1·10 (0·96, 1·26) |
p = 0·44 | p = 0·77 | p = 0·61 | p = 0·14 | p = 0·03 | p = 0·15 | |
Adjustment 2 | ||||||
 Education | 1·03 (0·94, 1·13) | 1·01 (0·95, 1·08) | 1·02 (0·92, 1·13) | 0·97 (0·92, 1·01) | – | 1·07 (0·94, 1·23) |
p = 0·53 | p = 0·70 | p = 0·74 | p = 0·13 |  | p = 0·30 | |
√(Sedentary time) (mins/day) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) |
Unadjusted | ||||||
 Education | −0·04 (−0·16, 0·08) | 0·01 (−0·15, 0·18) | −0·004 (−0·24, 0·24) | −0·09 (−0·19, 0·02) | 0·09 (−0·09, 0·27) | −0·03 (−0·36, 0·31) |
p = 0·52 | p = 0·87 | p = 0·98 | p = 0·10 | p = 0·34 | p = 0·88 | |
Adjustment 1 | ||||||
 Education | 0·04 (−0·11, 0·19) | 0·02 (−0·21, 0·24) | 0·001 (−0·28, 0·28) | 0·01 (−0·10, 0·11) | 0·07 (−0·11, 0·25) | 0·06 (−0·40, 0·52) |
p = 0·56 | p = 0·90 | p = 1·00 | p = 0·90 | p = 0·44 | p = 0·79 | |
Adjustment 2 | ||||||
 Education | 0·05 (−0·10, 0·19) | 0.01 (−0·21, 0·24) | −0·07 (−0·35, 0·21) | 0·01 (−0·10, 0·11) | – | 0·08 (−0·31, 0·47) |
p = 0·52 | p = 0·90 | p = 0·62 | p = 0·89 |  | p = 0·68 | |
Fruit | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) |
Unadjusted | ||||||
 Education | 1·01 (0·99, 1·02) | 1·02 (1·00, 1·04) | 1·02 (0·98, 1·05) | 1·03 (1·02, 1·05) | 1·02 (1·00, 1·05) | 1·04 (0·98, 1·10) |
p = 0·38 | p = 0·02 | p = 0·34 | p < 0·001 | p = 0·05 | p = 0·24 | |
Adjustment 1 | ||||||
 Education | 1·02 (0·99, 1·04) | 1·02 (1·00, 1·04) | 1·01 (0·98, 1·05) | 1·03 (1·02, 1·05) | 1·02 (1·00, 1·04) | 1·04 (0·99, 1·10) |
p = 0·23 | p = 0·10 | p = 0·50 | p < 0·001 | p = 0·12 | p = 0·13 | |
Adjustment 2 | ||||||
 Education | 1·02 (0·99, 1·04) | 1·02 (1·00, 1·04) | 1·00 (0·97, 1·03) | 1·03 (1·02, 1·05) | – | 1·03 (0·99, 1·07) |
p = 0·21 | p = 0·11 | p = 0·99 | p < 0·001 |  | p = 0·19 | |
Vegetables | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) |
Unadjusted | ||||||
 Education | 1·00 (0·99, 1·01) | 1·01 (1·00, 1·02) | 1·01 (0·98, 1·04) | 1·00 (0·99, 1·01) | 1·02 (1·00, 1·04) | 1·04 (1·01, 1·08) |
p = 0·52 | p = 0·01 | p = 0·66 | p = 0·93 | p = 0·06 | p = 0·02 | |
Adjustment 1 | ||||||
 Education | 1·00 (0·99, 1·02) | 1·01 (1·00, 1·02) | 1·01 (0·98, 1·04) | 1·00 (0.99, 1·01) | 1·02 (1·00, 1·04) | 1·05 (1·02, 1·07) |
p = 0·52 | p = 0·04 | p = 0·42 | p = 0·41 | p = 0·13 | p < 0·001 | |
Adjustment 2 | ||||||
 Education | 1·00 (0·99, 1·01) | 1·01 (1·00, 1·02) | 1·00 (0·98, 1·03) | 1·00 (0.99, 1·01) | – | 1·04 (1·02, 1·06) |
p = 0·58 | p = 0·06 | p = 0·72 | p = 0·49 |  | p < 0·001 | |
Fruit and vegetables | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) |
Unadjusted | ||||||
 Education | 1·00 (0·99, 1·02) | 1·02 (1·01, 1·03) | 1·01 (0·98, 1·04) | 1·01 (1·00, 1·02) | 1·02 (1·00, 1·04) | 1·04 (1·00, 1·08) |
p = 0·39 | p = 0·003 | p = 0·49 | p = 0·05 | p = 0·01 | p = 0·07 | |
Adjustment 1 | ||||||
 Education | 1·01 (0·99, 1·03) | 1·01 (1·00, 1·02) | 1·01 (0·98, 1·04) | 1·01 (1·00, 1·02) | 1·02 (1·00, 1·04) | 1·04 (1·01, 1·08) |
p = 0·28 | p = 0·02 | p = 0·43 | p = 0·03 | p = 0·04 | p = 0·01 | |
Adjustment 2 | ||||||
 Education | 1·01 (0·99, 1·03) | 1·01 (1·00, 1·02) | 1·00 (0·98, 1·03) | 1·01 (1·00, 1·02) | – | 1·03 (1·01, 1·06) |
p = 0·27 | p = 0·03 | p = 0·83 | p = 0·04 |  | p = 0·01 | |
Special diet | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) |
Unadjusted | ||||||
 Education | 1·00 (0·98, 1·02)** | 1·04 (1·01, 1·06)** | 1·00 (0·97, 1·02)** | 1·00 (0·98, 1·01)** | 1·03 (1·00, 1·06)** | 0·98 (0·96, 1·01)** |
p = 0·84 | p = 0·003 | p = 0·83 | p = 0·51 | p = 0·11 | p = 0·16 | |
Adjustment 1 | ||||||
 Education | 1·00 (0·98, 1·02)** | 1·06 (1·02, 1·09)** | 1·01 (0·97, 1·04)** | 0·99 (0·97, 1·01)** | 1·03 (1·00, 1·06)** | 0·98 (0·94, 1·02)** |
p = 0·84 | p < 0·001 | p = 0·63 | p = 0·30 | p = 0·13 | p = 0·32 | |
Adjustment 2 | ||||||
 Education | 0·99 (0·97, 1·02)** | 1·06 (1·03, 1·09)** | 0·99 (0·96, 1·03)** | 0·99 (0·97, 1·01)** | – | 0·98 (0·95, 1·02)** |
p = 0·64 | p < 0·001 | p = 0·67 | p = 0·29 |  | p = 0·34 | |
Insulin/blood sugar lowering medication | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) | RR (95% CI) |
Unadjusted | ||||||
 Education | 1·01 (0·99, 1·02) | 1·03 (1·01, 1·06) | 1·00 (1·00, 1·01)** | 1·00 (0·99, 1·01)** | 1·01 (1·00, 1·03)** | 0·97 (0·91, 0·98)** |
p = 0·54 | p = 0·01 | p = 0·31 | p = 0·62 | p = 0·18 | p = 0·003 | |
Adjustment 1 | ||||||
 Education | 1·00 (0·99, 1·02) | 1·04 (1·01, 1·07)** | 1·01 (1·00, 1·02)** | 1·00 (0·99, 1·01)** | 1·01 (0·99, 1·02)** | 0·94 (0·91, 0·98)** |
p = 0·77 | p = 0·02 | p = 0·25 | p = 0·78 | p = 0·32 | p = 0·001 | |
Adjustment 2 | ||||||
 Education | 1·00 (0·98, 1·02) | 1·04 (1·01, 1·07)** | 1·00 (0·99, 1·01)** | 1·00 (0·99, 1·02)** | – | 0·96 (0·92, 0·99)** |
p = 0·99 | p = 0·02 | p = 0·75 | p = 0·64 |  | p = 0·01 | |
Body mass index (kg/m2) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) |
Unadjusted | ||||||
 Education | 0·19 (0·02, 0·36) | 0·11 (0·01, 0·21) | 0·16 (−0·22, 0·55) | −0·07 (−0·14, −0·004) | −0·02 (−0·19, 0·16) | −0·08 (−0·35, 0·20) |
p = 0·026 | p = 0·03 | p = 0·41 | p = 0·04 | p = 0·86 | p = 0·59 | |
Adjustment 1 | ||||||
 Education | 0·16 (−0·04, 0·36) | 0·22 (0·11, 0·34) | 0·16 (−0·23, 0·55) | −0·09 (−0·17, −0·02) | −0·02 (−0·18, 0·14) | −0·04 (−0·26, 0·18) |
p = 0·12 | p < 0·001 | p = 0·43 | p = 0·01 | p = 0·81 | p = 0·72 | |
Adjustment 2 | ||||||
 Education | 0·11 (−0·07, 0·28) | 0·22 (0·10, 0·33) | 0·31 (−0·04, 0·67) | −0·10 (−0·17, −0·03) | – | 0·02 (−0·20, 0·24) |
p = 0·23 | p < 0·001 | p = 0·08 | p = 0·005 |  | p = 0·86 | |
Waist circumference (cm) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) |
Unadjusted | ||||||
 Education | 0·21 (−0·13, 0·55) | 0·52 (0·25, 0·79) | 0·09 (−0·78, 0·95) | −0·05 (−0·27, 0·17) | 0·20 (−0·29, 0·68) | −0·05 (−0·73, 0·62) |
p = 0·23 | p < 0·001 | p = 0·84 | p = 0·65 | p = 0·42 | p = 0·87 | |
Adjustment 1 | ||||||
 Education | 0·23 (−0·24, 0·70) | 0·71 (0·39, 1·03) | 0·05 (−0·86, 0·96) | −0·12 (−0·31, 0·07) | 0·12 (−0·32, 0·57) | −0·01 (−0·54, 0·52) |
p = 0·33 | p < 0·001 | p = 0·91 | p = 0·20 | p = 0·59 | p = 0·98 | |
Adjustment 2 | ||||||
 Education | 0·17 (−0·24, 0·59) | 0·69 (0·36, 1·01) | 0·19 (−0·64, 1·02) | −0·13 (−0·31, 0·05) |  | 0·14 (−0·47, 0·75) |
p = 0·41 | p < 0·001 | p = 0·65 | p = 0·15 | – | p = 0·65 | |
Hip circumference (cm) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) | β (95% CI) |
Unadjusted | ||||||
 Education | 0·31 (−0·07, 0·68) | 0·11 (−0·09, 0·31) | −0·33 (−1·12, 0·45) | 0·10 (−0·11, 0·30) | 0·15 (−0·27, 0·57) | −0·22 (−0·98, 0·55) |
p = 0·11 | p = 0·27 | p = 0·40 | p = 0·35 | p = 0·49 | p = 0·57 | |
Adjustment 1 | ||||||
 Education | 0·33 (−0·17, 0·82) | 0·38 (0·18, 0·58) | −0·38 (−1·24, 0·48) | 0·12 (−0·10, 0·34) | 0·23 (−0·20, 0·66) | 0·11 (−0·54, 0·76) |
p = 0·19 | p < 0·001 | p = 0·39 | p = 0·29 | p = 0·29 | p = 0·73 | |
Adjustment 2 | ||||||
 Education | 0·26 (−0·18, 0·70) | 0·35 (0·15, 0·55) | −0·16 (−0·87, 0·56) | 0·11 (−0·10, 0·33) | – | 0·23 (−0·40, 0·87) |
p = 0·25 | p = 0·001 | p = 0·67 | p = 0·29 |  | p = 0·47 |