Associations of overweight and gestational diabetes mellitus with free sugars from solid and liquid sources: cross-sectional and nested case-control analyses

Table 3 Crude and multivariable associations between free sugars (stratified by solid and liquid sources) and GDM

	Delivery between 2004 and 2017
	Associations with GDM case status during follow-up (N = 1842)^a
	No. (%) of Cases (N = 113)	No. (%) of Controls (N = 1729)	Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	Adjusted OR (excluding ‘overweight’ from multivariable model)	Adjusted OR (including ‘overweight’ in multivariable model)^b
SOLID SOURCES OF FREE SUGARS^a
> 2.5TE%	80 (71)	1300 (75)	0.80 (0.53–1.22)	1.05 (0.64–1.71)	1.08 (0.67–1.73)
< 2.5TE%	33 (29)	429 (25)	0.80 (0.53–1.22)	1.05 (0.64–1.71)	1.08 (0.67–1.73)
> 5TE%	43 (38)	967 (56)	0.48 (0.33–0.72)	0.56 (0.36–0.85)	0.60 (0.39–0.92)
< 5TE%	70 (62)	762 (44)	0.48 (0.33–0.72)	0.56 (0.36–0.85)	0.60 (0.39–0.92)
> 10TE%	23 (30)	449 (26)	0.73 (0.46–1.17)	0.73 (0.42–1.28)	0.79 (0.45–1.40)
< 10TE%	90 (80)	1280 (74)	0.73 (0.46–1.17)	0.73 (0.42–1.28)	0.79 (0.45–1.40)
LIQUID SOURCES OF FREE SUGARS^a
> 2.5TE%	84 (74)	1323 (77)	0.89 (0.57–1.38)	0.92 (0.62–1.45)	0.94 (0.61–1.47)
< 2.5TE%	29 (26)	406 (23)	0.89 (0.57–1.38)	0.92 (0.62–1.45)	0.94 (0.61–1.47)
> 5TE%	65 (58)	1141 (66)	0.70 (0.47–1.03)	0.89 (0.57–1.38)	0.91 (0.58–1.42)
< 5TE%	48 (42)	588 (44)	0.70 (0.47–1.03)	0.89 (0.57–1.38)	0.91 (0.58–1.42)
> 10TE%	53 (47)	831 (48)	0.95 (0.65–1.40)	1.06 (0.67–1.69)	1.07 (0.66–1.71)
< 10TE%	60 (53)	898 (52)	0.95 (0.65–1.40)	1.06 (0.67–1.69)	1.07 (0.66–1.71)

^aEach threshold of free sugar intake (2.5TE%, 5TE%, 10TE%) was included in a separate regression model. Associations between GDM and free sugar intake at the 15TE% threshold were not examined due to inadequate statistical power at this level of intake. We compared those with intake above each of these set thresholds to individuals consuming below each respective threshold (reference group). Regression models were adjusted for age, ethnicity, immigrant status, food insecurity, rural residence, smoking, physical activity, total energy intake, amount of food intake reported in the last 24 h compared to usual intake, consumption of fruit juice daily and ≥ 5 servings of fruit and vegetables and other dietary covariates (e.g., fats, protein, sodium, potassium, fibre and non-sugar carbohydrates)
^bOverweight in adolescents (12–19 years old) was defined as corresponding to BMI above the 85th percentile. BMI percentiles were age- and sex- standardized in accordance with Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Adults (20 years and older) were classified as overweight at a BMI equal to or above 25 kg/m²

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